Chapter 2

Important Chemical Concepts:

Expressing Quantities and Concentrations

1
 Some Important Units of Measurement
SI units:
Scientists throughout the world have adopted a standardized system of units
known as the International System of Units or SI units. The system is
based on metric system. This system is based on the seven fundamental
base units shown in the following table. Other units are derived from the
base units such as volts, hertz, joules…ect.

Physical quantity Name of unit symbol

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd 2
Prefixes are used with the base units and other derived units to
express small or large measured quantities in terms of a few simple
digits as shown in the following table
prefix symbol meaning Exponential
notation
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
- - 1 100
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro µ 0.000001 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12 3
The two units of measurements that are widely used in analytical chem. are:
the amount of chemical species is determined from mass measurement; kg,
g, mg, or µg are used.
 volumes of liquids are measured (L), mL, or µL
1.0 L = 10-3 m3 = dm3 1.0 mL = 10-3 m3 = 1.0 cm3
1.0 L = 103 mL or 1.0 mL = 10-3 L
The Mole:
The mole is the SI unit for the amount of chemical species. The mole is
associated with a chemical formula and Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 10 23) of
particles. The molar mass (M) of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole
of the substance.
1 mol of a compound = molar mass (g) = 6.022 x 10 23 molecules
Molar masses are calculated by summing the atomic masses of all the elements
appearing in a chemical formula.
For example, the molar mass of Al2(Cr2O7)3 is:
molar mass Al2(Cr2O7)3 = (2 x 27) g + 3 {(2 x 52) +(7 x 16)} = 702 g
1 mol of Al2(Cr2O7)3 = 702 g Al2(Cr2O7)3 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules Al2(Cr2O74)3
Mass and Weight: Mass is an invariant measure of the amount of matter
in an object. Weight is the force of attraction between an object and earth.
The weight of an object depends on the location because gravitational
attraction varies with geographic location. The mass of an object remains
constant regardless of locations. A chemical analysis is always based on
mass so that the results will not depend on locality.
The Millimole: The millimole (mmol) is 1/1000 of a mole. Sometimes it
is more convenient to make calculations with millimoles (mmol) rather
than mole. The mass in grams of a millimole of a substance is known as
the millimolar mass which is 1/1000 of the molar mass
1 mmol = 10-3 mol
Calculating the amount of substance in mole and mmole:
The number of moles nx of a species x can be calculated as:

mass of x = nx • molar mass

number of mmol is given by:⇒
5
Example : Determine the number of moles and millimoles of 296 mg of
Na2B4O7•10H2O
molar mass Na2B4O7•10H2O = 2 x molar mass Na + 4 x molar mass B +
7 x molar mass O + 10 x molar mass H2O
= 2 x 23 g/mol + 4 x 10.8 g/mol + 7 x 16 g/mol + 10 x 18 g/mol
= 381 g/mol
mmol Na2B4O7•10H2O = mass (mg) /molar mass = 296 mg / (381g/mo)
= 0.777 mmol
moles Na2B4O7•10H2O = 396 x 10-3 g / (381g/mo) = 7.77 x 10-4 mol
Example: Determine the mass in (g) and (mg) of 6.21 mol KBr (molar mass=
119 g/mol).
mass (g) of KBr = moles x molar mass = 6.21 mol x 119 g/mol = 738.99 g
1mg = 10-3 g
mass (mg) = 738.99 g x 1 mg / 10-3 g = 738.99 x 103 mg
OR 6.21 mol = 6.21 x 103 mmol
mass (mg) = 6.21 x 103 mmol x 119 g/mol = 738.99 x 103 mg
6
Example : if you have 4.62 g Na3PO4 (molar mass = 164 g/mol).
calculate a) moles of Na+ that present in this mass
b) mass (g) of Na+ that present in this mass
c) number of Na+ ions that present in this mass
a) 1.0 mol Na3PO4 = 3 moles Na+
mol Na3PO4 = 4.62 g / (164 g/mol) = 0.028 mol
moles Na+ = 0.028 mol Na3PO4 x 3 mol Na+ = 0.084 moles Na+
1.0 mol Na3PO4

b) Mass of Na+ = moles Na+ x molar mass Na+ = 0.084 mol x 23 g/mol
= 1.93 g
c) 1.0 mol Na+ = 23 g Na+ = 6.022 x 1023 Na+ ions (Avogadro’s number)
no. of Na+ ions = 0.084 mol Na+ x 6.022 x 1023 Na++ions = 5.06 x 10 ions
22
1.0 mol Na

7
 Solution and their concentrations
The concentration of solute in solution can be expressed in several ways:
1. Molar Concentration or Molarity (M) :
The molar concentration of a solution is: the number of moles of the solute
species that is contained in one liter of the solution. Molar concentration or
molarity M, has the dimensions of mol/L. Molarity is also equal to the
number of millimoles of a solute per milliliter of solution.
Molarity = M = (no. mol solute)/(no. L solution)
= (no. mmol solute)/(no. mL solution) = n/V
n (mol) = M (mol/L) V(L) n (mmol) = M (mol/L) V(mL)
Example 4-3: Calculate the molar concentration of ethanol in an aqueous
solution that contains 2.30 g of C2H5OH (46.07 g/mol) in 3.50 L of
solution.
Moles of ethanol = 2.30 g / (46.07 g/mol) = 0.04992 mol C2H5OH
Molar concentration (M) = (moles ethanol)/(volume)
= (0.04992 mol)/(3.50 L) = 0.0143 mol C2H5OH/L
8
= 0.0143 M
Analytical Molarity:
It is the total number of moles of a solute in 1L of the solution (or total
number of millimoles in 1 mL), regardless of its chemical state (nothing is
said whether or not the solute is ionized).
It described how a solution of a given molarity can be prepared. It
designated by the symbol CAB.
e.g: HCl with analytical concentration of 1.0 M can be prepared by
prepared by dissolving 1.0 mol (36.5 g/mol) of HCl in water and diluting
to exactly 1.0 L, so CHCl = 1.0 M

Equilibrium Molarity (or species molarity):

The equilibrium molarity or species molarity express the molar
concentration of a particular species in a solution at equilibrium.
To determine the species molarity it is necessary to know how the solute
behaves when it dissolved in solvent. It takes in to account the possible
dissociation of the solute in to ions.
It designated by using a bracket around the species to indicate their conc.
The equilibrium molarity of CaCl2 in a solution with an analytical
concentration of 1.0 M is 0.0 M because HCl is entirely dissociated.
9
+2 -
Example : Calculate the analytical and equilibrium molar concentrations
of the solute species in an aqueous solution that contains 285 mg of
trichloroacetic acid (HA), Cl3CCOOH (163.4 g/mol) in 10.0 mL.
(Trichloroacetic acid (HA) is 73% ionized in water).
285 x10-3 g HA
Moles HA =
163.4 (g/mol) HA
= 1.744 x 10-3 mol HA
1.744 x 10-3 mol
Molar analytical concentration, CHA =
10.0 x 10-3 L
= 0.174 mol/L = 0.174 M
73% of HA dissociates giving H+ and A-
HA H+ + A-
[HA] = 0.174 M x (100-73)/100
= 0.174 x 0.27 M = 0.047 M
[A-] = 0.174 M x 73/100 = 0.127 M
One mol H+ is formed for each mol A-. 10
Therefore, [H+ ]=[A- ] = 0.127 M
2. Percent concentration:
Concentration can be expressed in terms of percent (parts per hundred).
Unfortunately, this practice can be a source of ambiguity because percent
composition can be expressed in three different methods:
weight solute
- Weight percent (w/w) = x 100 %
weight solution

volume solute
- Volume percent (v/v) = x 100%
volume solution

weight solute (g)

- Weight/Volume percent (w/v) = x 100%
volume solution (mL)
Notes:
 The denominator in each expression refer to solution rather than
solvent.
 The first two expression do not depend on the units used (the numerator
and dominator must be expressed in the same units).
 In the third expression , units must be defined because the numerator and
11
dominator have different units that do not cancel.
 Of the three expression, only (w/w) is temperature independent.
 (w/w) percent is used to express the concentration of commercial aqueous
reagents. e.g.: HNO3 sold as 70% solution, which means that 100 g of this
solution contain 70 g HNO3.
 (v/v) percent is used to specify the concentration of a solution prepared by
diluting a pure liquid solute with another liquid.
e.g: 5.0% aqueous solution of ethanol is prepared by diluting 5.0 mL of
pure ethanol with enough water to give 100 mL solution.
 (w/v) percent is used to indicate the composition of diluted aqueous
solutions of solid reagent.
e.g: 5.0% aqueous solution of AgNO3 is prepared by dissolving 5.0 g
AgNO3 in sufficient water to give 100 mL solution.
 you should always specify the type of percent when reporting
concentration in this way.

12
3. Parts Per Million and Parts Per Billion:
For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is a convenient way to
express concentration.
mass of solute
Cppm = x 106
mass of solution

where, Cppm is the concentration in parts per million.

for diluted aqueous solutions, the densities are approximately 1.00 g/mL.
That is: Cppm = mass of solute (mg)
volume of solution (L)
For even more dilute solution parts per billion is used
Cppb = mass of solutex 109
mass of solution

Cppb = mass of solute (µg)

volume of solution (L)
13
Example : What is the molarity of K+ in a solution that contains 63.3 ppm of
K3Fe(CN)6 (molar mass = 329.3 g/mol):

63.3 ppm K3Fe(CN)6 =63.3 mg K3Fe(CN)6 /L = 63.3 x 10-3 g K3Fe(CN)6 /L

CK3Fe(CN)6 = 63.3 x 10-3 g K3Fe(CN)6 x1.0 mol K3Fe(CN)6

L 329.3 g K3Fe(CN)6
= 1.99 x 10-4 mol/L = 1.99 x 10-4 M
1 M K3Fe(CN)6 = 3 M K+

[K+] = 1.99 x 10-4 mol K3Fe(CN)6 3 mol K+

x
L 1 mol K3Fe(CN)6
= 5.77 x 10-4 mol/L = 5.77 x 10-4 M

14
4. p-functions (p-value):
The p-function is the negative base-10 logarthim (log) of the molar
concentration of that species. Thus, for the species X
pX = - log [X]
Example: calculate the p-value for each ion in a solution that is 2.0 x 10 -3
M NaCl and 5.4 x 10-4 M in HCl.
[Na+] = 2.0 x 10-3 M [H+] = 5.4 x 10-4 M
[Cl-] = 2.0 x 10-3 M + 5.4 x 10-4 M = 2.54 x 10-3 M
pNa = - log 2.0 x 10-3 = 2.699 pH = - log 5.4 x 10-4 =
3.27
pCl = - log 2.54 x 10-3 = 2.595

Example: calculate the molar concentration of Ag+ in a solution that has

pAg = 6.372
pAg = - log [Ag+] = 6.372
log [Ag+] = - 6.372
15
[Ag+] = antilog (- 6.372) = 4.25 x 10 -7
Density and Specific Gravity of solution:
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Density is
expressed in units of kg/L or g/mL.
Specific gravity: is the ratio of the mass of the substance to the mass of an
equal volume of water at 4oC. Specific gravity is dimensionless.
Since the density of water is approximately 1.00 g/mL, we use the term
density and specific gravity interchangeably.
The specific gravities for commercial concentrated acids and bases are shown
in the following table :
Reagent % Concentration (w/w) Specific gravity
CH3COOH 99.7 1.05
NH3 29.0 0.90
HCl 37.2 1.19
HF 49.5 1.15
HNO3 70.5 1.42
HClO4 71.0 1.67
H3PO4 86.0 1.71
16
H SO 96.5 1.84
Example: Calculate the molar concentration of HNO3 (63.0 g/mol) in a
solution that has a specific gravity of 1.42 and is 70% HNO 3 (w/w).
(g) HNO3/mL solution = 70 g HNO3 x 1.42 g solution
100 g solution 1 mL solution
= 0.994 g/mL

CHNO3 = 0.994 g HNO3 x 1.0 mol HNO3 x 103 mL

mL solution 63.0 g HNO3 L

CHNO3 = 16 M
SO
CHA = (w/w) % x specific gravity x x 103
1
molar mass

17
Example: calculate the mass (mg) of solute that present in:
a) 2.92 L of 5.23 x 10-3 M H2O2 (molar mass = 34 g/mol)
moles H2O2 = M V = 5.23 x 10-3 mol/L x 2.92 L = 0.0153 mol
mass (g) H2O2 = 0.0153 mol H2O2 x 34 g/mol = 0.52 g = 0.52 x 103 mg

b) 737 mL of a solution that contain 6.38 ppm Pb(NO3)2 (molar mass

= 393 g/mol)
mass of
6.38 ppm = 6.38 mg/L = Pb(NO3)2 (mg)
volume (L)
mass (mg) of Pb(NO3)2 = 6.38 mg/L x 737 x 10-3 L = 4.70 mg

c) 6.75 mL of 0.0619 M KMnO4 (molar mass = 101 g/mol)

n (mmol) of KMnO4 = 0.0619 mol/L x 6.75 mL = 0.418 mmol
mass of KMnO4 (mg) = 0.418 mmol x 101 g/mol = 42.2 mg

d) 70.0 mL of 85%(w/w) KCl (molar mass = 74.5 g/mol)

mass=KCl (g) mass (g)x=100%
85% 18
70 x 85 /100
Example: A solution was prepared by dissolving 0.414 g K 3Fe(CN)6
(molar mass = 329 g/mol) in sufficient water to give 750 mL solution,
calculate:
a) The molar analytical concentration of K 3Fe(CN)6 .
b) The equilibrium molarity of K3Fe(CN)6.
c) The molar concentration of K+ and Fe(CN)6-3
d) The (w/v)% of K3Fe(CN)6.
e) the mmol of K+ in 50.0 Ml of this solution.
f) ppm of Fe(CN)6-3.
g) pK value and p Fe(CN)6-3 value.

Solution:
a) Moles K3Fe(CN)6 = 0.414 g / 329 (g/mol) = 0.0013 mol
C K3Fe(CN)6 = 0.0013 mol K3Fe(CN)6 / 750 x 10-3 L = 0.0017 M
b) [K3Fe(CN)6] = 0 M
c) 1.0[KM+]will
= dissociate to give 3.0 M K+ and 1.0 mol Fe(CN) +3
= 0.0051
6 M
19
0.0017 M K3Fe(CN)6 x 3 M K+
 continue ….
[Fe(CN)6+3] = 0.0017 M
d) (w/v)% of K3Fe(CN)6 = 0.414 g K3Fe(CN)6x 100% = 0.06 %
750 mL solution

e) mmol of K+/50 mL solution = 0.0051 mol/L K+ x 50 mL = 0.3 mmol

f) ppm K3Fe(CN)6 = 0.414 x 103 mg K3Fe(CN)6= 552 ppm

0.75 L

g) pK = -log [K+] = -log (0.0051) = 2.29

p Fe(CN)6+3 = - log [Fe(CN)6+3] = - log (0.0017) = 2.77

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Example: Describe the preparation of:
1.500 mL of 4.75% (w/v) aqueous glycerol (molar mass = 46.1 g/mol).
4.75% = mass of glycerol
x 100%
500 mL solution

mass of glycerol = (4.75 x 500)/100 = 23.75 g

weigh 23.75 g of glycerol, add water until the volume become 500 mL.

2.500 mL of 4.75% (v/v) aqueous ethanol.

4.75% = volume of ethanol (mL)
x 100%
500 mL solution
volume of ethanol = (4.75 x 500)/100 = 23.75 mL
measure 23.75 mL of ethanol, add water until the volume become 500 mL.

3.500 g of 4.75% (w/w) aqueous ethanol.

4.75% = mass of ethanol
x 100%
500 g solution
mass of ethanol = (4.75 x 500)/100 = 23.75 g 21
4. 500 mL of 0.065 M AgNO3 (molar mass = 170 g/mol) from solid reagent.
moles AgNO3 = M V = (0.065 mol/L) x (500 x 10-3 L) = 0.0325 mol.
mass AgNO3 = 0.0325 mol x 170 g/mol = 5.525 g AgNO3
weigh 5.525 g of AgNO3 , add water until the total volume become 500 mL

5. 1.0 L of 0.285 M HCl starting with 6.0 M HCl solution.

(M V)conc. = (MV)diluted 6 M x V = 0.285 M x1.0 L
VHCl = 0.285 M x1.0 L/ 6 M = 0.0475 L = 47.5 mL
measure 47.5 mL of HCl, add water until the total volume become 500 mL

6. 600 mL of 3% (w/v) aqueous BaCl2 from 0.4 M BaCl2 solution.

3 g BaCl2 1 1 mL
molarity BaCl2 =
100 mLx 208 g/mol x 10-3 L = 0.1 M
(M V)conc. = (MV)diluted
0.4 M x V = 0.1 M x 600 mL
V = 150 mL
measure 150 mL of 3% (w/v) BaCl2 , add water until the total volume become
600 mL 22
7. 2.0 L of 0.120 M HClO4 (molar mass = 100.5 g/mol) from commercial reagent
which is 60%(w/w) HClO4 and has a specific gravity 1.6
60 g HClO4 1.6 g solution 1 1 mL
M HClO4 = x x x
100 g solution 1 mL solution 100.5 g /mol 10-3L

= 9.6 M
(M V)conc. = (MV)diluted
9.6 M x V = 0.120 M x 2.0 L Vconc. = 0.025 L = 25 mL
measure 25 mL of 60%(w/w) HClO4 , add water until the total volume become 2.0
L
8. 9.0 L of solution that is 60 ppm Na+ ( molar mass = 23 g/mol) starting with
solid Na2CO3 (molar mass = 106 g/mol).
mass Na+ = (60 mg/L) x 9.0 L = 540 mg = 0.540 g
moles Na+ = 0.54 g/ (23 g/mol) = 0.235 moles
1mol Na2CO3 contain 2 mol Na+
moles Na2CO3 = 0.235 moles Na+ x (1mol Na2CO3 /2 mol Na+ ) = 0.0118 mol
mass Na2CO3 = 0.0118 mol x 106 g/mol = 1.251 g
weigh 1.251 g of Na2CO3 , add water until the total volume become 9.0 L, the solution will
have 60 ppm Na+ 23
 Chemical Stoichiomtry
The stoichiometry of a reaction is the relationship among the number of moles
of reactants and products as shown by a balanced equation.
A balanced chemical equation is a statement of the combining ratios or
stoichiometry in units of moles among the reacting substances and their
products.
Thus, the equation
2 NaI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
Indicates that : 2 mol 1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Stoichiometric calculations involve three steps:
• Transformation of the known mass of a substance in grams to a
corresponding number of moles
• Multiplication by a factor that accounts for the stoichiometry
• Reconversion of the data in moles back to the SI units called for in the
answer
The following figure show these three steps

24
25
Example: a) What mass of AgNO3 (169.9 g/mol) is needed to convert
2.33 g of Na2CO3 (106.0 g/mol) to Ag2CO3? (b) What mass of Ag2CO3
(275.7 g/mol) will be formed:
a) Na2CO3(aq)+ 2 AgNO3(aq) → Ag2CO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
1 m o l N a 2C O 3 2 m ol A gN O 3 1 6 9 .9 g A g N O 3
2 .3 3 g N a 2 C O 3   
1 0 6 .0 g 1 m o l N a 2C O 3 1 m ol A gN O 3
= 7 .4 7 g A g N O 3

b) From the balanced equation,

moles of Ag2CO3 = moles of Na2CO3 = 0.02198mol
0.02198 mol x (275.7 g Ag2CO3)/(1 mol Ag2CO3)
= 6.06 g Ag2CO3

26
Example: a) What mass of Ag2CO3 (276 g/mol) is formed when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3 is
mixed with 50.0 mL of 0.0800 M Na2CO3
Na2CO3(aq)+ 2 AgNO3(aq) → Ag2CO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
As a first step, we must identify the limiting reactant
moles AgNO3 = M V = (0.200 mol/L) x 25.0 x 10-3 L = 5.0 x 10-3 mol
moles Na2CO3 = M V = (0.0800 mol/L) x 50.0 x 10-3 L = 4.0 x 10-3 mol
Na2CO3 2 AgNO3
4.0 x 10-3 5.0 x 10-3 /2
The limiting reactant is AgNO3

= 0.690 g Ag2CO3 1 mol Ag2CO3 276 g Ag2CO3

mass Ag CO = 5.0
b) Calculate 2the molar
3 x 10 -3
mol AgNO x
3 reactant.
concentration of the excess x
moles Na2CO3 un-reacted = total moles – moles reacted
2mol AgNO3 mol Ag2CO3
= 4.0 x 10-3 mol Na2CO3 - (5.0 x 10-3 AgNO3 x )
= 1.5 x 10-3 mol Na2CO3
1 mol Na2CO3
M Na2CO3 =
2 mol AgNO3

1.5 x 10-3 mol Na2CO3 = 0.020 M Na2CO3 27

(50.0 + 25.0) x 10-3 L