ENDOCRINE Vs NERVOUS SYSTEMS

• ENDOCRINE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
SYSTEM
• “WIRED”
“WIRELESS”
• CHEMICAL SIGNAL AT TARGET CELL
• RAPID
SLOW
• BRIEF DURATION
LONG DURATION
• CLOSE ANATOMICAL
SPECIFIC RECEPTORSPROXIMITY
Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine Regulation
 AP s are chemical events produced by diffusion of ions through
neuron plasma membrane.

 Action of some hormones (insulin) are accompanied by ion diffusion

and electrical changes in the target cell
 Nerve axon boutons release NTs
 Some chemicals are secreted as hormones, and also are NTs

 In order for either a NT or hormone to function in physiological

regulation:
 Target cell must have specific receptor proteins.

 Combination of the regulatory molecule with its receptor proteins must

cause a specific sequence of changes.
 There must be a mechanism to quickly turn off the action of a regulator.
 Endocrine System
• It is a system in which various hormones synthesized and secreted by
specific ductless glands are transported as mobile messengers to act on
adjacent and distant tissues
• ENDOCRINE GLANDS: The classic endocrine glands are ductless and secret
their chemical products (hormones) into the interstitial space and from there
into the circulation.
– Unlike the cardiovascular, renal, and digestive systems, the endocrine glands
are not anatomically connected and are scattered throughout the body
• HORMONES: Hormones are chemical substances or messengers secreted
into the circulatory system and carried to the target organs or elsewhere,
where they act upon specific RECEPTORS on TARGET CELLS to exert a
biologic action.
• Neuroendocrine Gland (neurons synthesize and secrete hormones)
Hypothalamus.
 Basic Functions of Hormones
 To maintain a constant internal environment in the body
fluids (Homeostasis)
 To regulate the growth and development of the body as a
whole
 To promote sexual maturation, rhythm and facilitate
reproductive process
 To regulate energy production and stabilize metabolic rate

 To help the body to adjust to stressful and emergency

situation
 Endocrine Glands and Organs with Endocrine Functions

Endocrine Glands Organs with Endocrine Functions

1. Hypothalamus Organs Endocrine Secretions
2. Pituitary gland 1.Placenta Human Chorionic gonadotropin
3. Thyroid gland Human Somatomammotropin
4. Parathyroid gland Estrogens, Progesterones
5. Islets of Langerhans 2. Kidney Renin
6.Testes 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
Erythropoetin
7.Ovaries
8. Pineal Gland 3. Heart Atrial Natriuretic Peptide

4.Stomach Gastrin, Gherlin

5. Small Secretin, Cholecystokinin

Intestine
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
 Most Hormones Are Peptides or Proteins

 Steroid Hormones Are Derived from Cholesterol

 Some Hormones Are Derived from Single Amino Acids

 Prohormones and Prehormones
• Prohormone:
– Precursor is a longer chained polypeptide that is cut and spliced
together to make the hormone.
• Proinsulin.

• Preprohormone:
– Prohormone derived from larger precursor molecule.
• Preproinsulin.

• Prehormone:
– Molecules secreted by endocrine glands that are inactive until
changed into hormones by target cells.
• T4 converted to T3.
 Peptide hormone synthesis, packaging, and release
• Post-Translational Modification of Prohormones
• Transport in the Blood and Half-Life of Peptide Hormones
Peptide hormone synthesis, packaging, and release
 Mechanisms of Hormone Action
 Hormones of same chemical class have similar mechanisms of
action.
 Similarities include:
Location of cellular receptor proteins depends on the chemical
nature of the hormone.
Events that occur in the target cells.

 To respond to a hormone:
 Target cell must have specific receptors for that hormone
(specificity).
Hormones exhibit:
 Affinity (bind to receptors with high bond strength).

 Saturation (low capacity of receptors).

Cellular Mechanism of Action of Peptide Hormones
 Steroid Hormone Synthesis and Release
• Synthesis and Release

• Transport in the Blood and Half-Life of Steroid Hormones

Cellular Mechanism of Action of Steroid Hormones
Single Amino Acids Derived Hormones
Control of Hormone Release
• Hormones can be
classified by their reflex
pathways
• Many Endocrine Reflexes
Involve the Nervous
System
Vascular link between the hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary

A Portal System Delivers Hormones

from Hypothalamus to Anterior Pituitary
The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones
Major Hypophysiotropic Hormones
The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones
Signal transduction pathways used by major hormones
Feedback Loops
 Hormone interactions
In synergism, the effect of interacting hormones
is more than additive
A permissive hormone
allows another hormone
to exert its full effect
Antagonistic hormones
have opposing effects
 Effects of [Hormone] on Tissue Response
 [Hormone]=Hormone concentration

 [Hormone] in blood reflects the rate of secretion.

 Half-life:

 Time required for the blood [hormone] to be reduced to ½

reference level.
Minutes to days.

 Normal tissue responses are produced only when [hormone]

are present within physiological range.
 Varying [hormone] within normal, physiological range can
affect the responsiveness of target cells.
Effects of [Hormone] on Tissue Response (continued)

 Priming effect (upregulation):

 Increase number of receptors formed on target cells in
response to particular hormone.
 Greater response by the target cell.

 Desensitization (downregulation):
 Prolonged exposure to high [polypeptide hormone].
Subsequent exposure to the same [hormone] produces less
response.
Decrease in number of receptors on target cells.
 Insulin in adipose cells.

 Pulsatile secretion may prevent downregulation.

 Thyroid Hormones
• Thyroid gland is located just below the
larynx.
• Thyroid is the largest of the pure
endocrine glands.
• Follicular cells secrete thyroxine.
• Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin.
Production of Thyroid Hormones (continued)
The thyroid hormones so produced remain part of the thyroglobulin molecule until needed. As such, colloid represents a reservoir of thyroid
hormones, and humans can ingest a diet completely devoid of iodide for up to 2 months before a decline in circulating thyroid hormone
levels is seen. When there is a need for thyroid hormone secretion, colloid is internalized by the thyrocytes by endocytosis, and directed
toward lysosomal degradation. Thus, the peptide bonds of thyroglobulin are hydrolyzed, and free T4 and T3 are discharged into cytosol and
thence to the capillaries.
 Production of Thyroid Hormones
 Iodide (I-) actively transported into the follicle and secreted into
the colloid.
 Oxidized to iodine (Io).

 Iodine attached to tyrosine within thyroglobulin chain.

 Attachment of 1 iodine produces monoiodotyrosine (MIT).

 Attachment of 2 iodines produces diiodotyrosine (DIT).

 MIT and DIT or 2 DIT molecules coupled together.

 T3 and T4 produced.

 TSH stimulates pinocytosis into the follicular cell.

 Enzymes hydrolyze T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin.


 Actions of T3
 Stimulates protein synthesis.

 Promotes maturation of nervous system.

 Stimulates rate of cellular respiration by:

 Production of uncoupling proteins.

 Increase active transport by Na+/K+ pumps.

 Lower cellular [ATP].

 Increases metabolic heat.

 Increases metabolic rate.

 Stimulates increased consumption of glucose, fatty acids
and other molecules.
 Diseases of the Thyroid
• Iodine-deficiency
(endemic) goiter:
– Abnormal growth of the
thyroid gland.
• In the absence of
sufficient iodine,
cannot produce
adequate amounts of
T4 and T3.
– Lack of negative
feedback inhibition.
» Stimulates TSH,
which causes
abnormal growth.
 Diseases of the Thyroid (continued)

Iodine-deficiency (endemic) goiter—continued]

[

 Adult myxedema:
• Accumulation of mucoproteins and fluid in subcutaneous tissue.
 Symptoms:
• Decreased metabolic rate.
• Weight gain.
• Decreased ability to adapt to cold.
• Lethargy.
 Grave’s disease:
 Autoimmune disorder:
• Exerts TSH-like effects on thyroid.
– Not affected by negative feedback.
 Cretinism:
– Hypothyroid from end of 1st trimester to 6 months postnatally.
• Severe mental retardation.
 Parathyroid Glands
 Embedded in the lateral lobes of
the thyroid gland.
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
 Only hormone secreted by the
parathyroid glands.

 Single most important hormone in

the control of blood [Ca2+].
 Stimulated by decreased blood
[Ca2+].
 Promotes rise in blood [Ca2+] by
acting on bones, kidney and
intestines.
 Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal cortex:
– Does not receive neural innervation.
– Must be stimulated hormonally (ACTH).

• Consists of 3 zones:
– Zona glomerulosa.
– Zona fasciculata.
– Zona reticularis.

• Secretes corticosteroids.
 Functions of the Adrenal Cortex
 Zona glomerulosa:
 Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone):
 Stimulate kidneys to reabsorb
Na+ and secrete K+.

 Zona fasciculata:
 Glucocorticoids (cortisol):
 Inhibit glucose utilization and
stimulate gluconeogenesis.

 Zona reticularis (DHEA):

 Sex steroids:
 Supplement sex steroids.
 Functions of the Adrenal Medulla

Innervated by preganglionic sympathetic axons.

Increase respiratory rate.
Increase HR and cardiac output.
Vasoconstrict blood vessels, thus increasing
venous return.
Stimulate glycogenolysis.
Stimulate lipolysis.
 Stress and the Adrenal Gland
 Non-specific response to
stress produces the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS).
 Alarm phase:
 Adrenal glands activated.

 Stage of resistance:
 Stage of readjustment.

 Stage of exhaustion:
 Sickness and/or death if
readjustment is not
complete.
Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)
 Alpha cells secrete glucagon.
 Stimulus is decrease in blood
[glucose].
 Stimulates glycogenolysis and
lipolysis.
 Stimulates conversion of fatty
acids to ketones.
 Beta cells secrete insulin.
 Stimulus is increase in blood
[glucose].
 Promotes entry of glucose into
cells.
 Converts glucose to glycogen
and fat.
 Aids entry of amino acids into
cells.
 Gonads and Placenta
Gonads (testes and ovaries):
Secrete sex hormones.
Testosterone.

Estradiol 17-b.
After menopause, produces estrone.

Progesterone.

Placenta:
Secretes large amounts of estriol, progesterone,
hCG, hCS.
 Autocrine and Paracrine Regulation
 Autocrine:
 Produced and act within the same tissue of an organ.
All autocrine regulators control gene expression in target
cells.
 Paracrine:
 Produced within one tissue and regulate a different tissue
of the same organ.
 Cytokines (lymphokines):
 Regulate different cells (interleukins) .
 Growth factors:
 Promote growth and cell division in any organ.
 Neutrophins:
 Guide regenerating peripheral neurons.