UNIT FIVE

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
(ORAL COMMUNICATION IN
FOCUS)
 Speech/presentation

Is a live mode of sharing information with a select

audience.
It is a form of oral communication in which a
person shares factual information with a particular
audience.
Is an oral activity using visual electronic aids (i.e.
LCD projectors) to discuss ideas and information
with a specific audience in an impressive &
convincing manner
 Speech/presentation…
Essential Characteristics of a good presentation:
 A clear structure with an introduction, discussion
& end
 Facts and figures are visually presented (tables,
graphs, charts…)
 Different colours are used for attraction
 The presenter shows an understanding of the
audience’s needs and level of understanding
 Humour and anecdotes are often employed to
create a good relationship with the audience
 Questions are given serious attention
 Speech/presentation…
Good speakers are not born; they are made!
When as speaker you utter your words with clarity,
feeling, correctness, and you do justice to the rhythm
of the words, your speech begins to sound lyrical,
almost like music.
The factor that matter in oral communication:
i. Projection: An effective voice is not only clear but also
as loud as the occasion and the listeners demand.
When you make a presentation to a group, ensure
that you are heard even at the end of the room.
ii. Articulation: It means speaking all the parts of a word
carefully. Incorrect articulation occurs because of
carelessness on the part of the speakers. It involves:
Leaving off parts of a word, i.e. deletion,
Adding parts to a word, i.e. addition, or
Slurring words together.
 Speech/presentation…
Types of presentation
I. Informative: delivering a body of material including
data together with interpretations and judgments.
The aim is to promote comprehension.
II. Persuasive: attitudes, beliefs and opinions of the
audience are targeted. The objective is on either
affirming and strengthening existing positions
adopted by those present in relation to some issue,
or trying to bring about a change in the opposite
direction.
III. Energizing: used to mobilize the group and spur
them to action. It is a call to arms’. To be considered
successful, the audience must leave with a firm
commitment to do something and then do it.
 Speech/presentation…
What it takes to be a successful presenter?
Poised: The audience should be assured that the
presenter is in control of self and the situation
Competent: The audience must be convinced that the
speaker has acceptable level of expertise of the topic.
Trust worthy: The audience must believe that the
speaker is fair, reliable, honest, honourable, trustworthy
and mindful of their interests.
Committed: the presenter must show commitment to
the message delivered as where applicable, to the
course of action advocated. Being prepared to ‘go the
extra mile’ with the group
Respectful: the speaker must show respect for the
audience, their views, opinions and knowledge base.
 Speech/presentation…
Five propositions about presentations
I. Presentations are made before small audiences, which
are often composed of decision makers (your boss or
other senior executives who might be considering your
budget proposal or status report Or your clients and
customer considering your pitch on behalf of the
services of products of your firm).
II. Presentations are usually delivered extemporaneously
III. Presentations usually complement some type of
written communication
IV. Presentations usually employ some type of visual aid,
typically computer generated presentation graphics
(e.g. power point), overhead transparencies, or slides.
V. Presentations usually have a question & answer session
 Types of Speech Delivery
1. The Manuscript Delivery
Is delivered from a full text.
It is read word for word from a typed manuscript or
from a teleprompter.
Advantages:
Offers precision
Control over content
Disadvantages:
Poor reading skill
Eliminate virtually all eye contact
Is relatively inflexible
 Types…
2. The Memorized Presentation
Also requires that the presenter write out the content
word for word, but rather than reading it to the
audience, the presenter memorizes the presentation in
advance and then recites it.
Advantages:
Offers precision
Control over content
Disadvantages:
Places considerable pressure on the presenter
Time consuming
Tend to sound memorized
As inflexible as the manuscript delivery
 Types…
3. The Impromptu Presentation
Is unprepared, spontaneous, off-the-cuff presentation.
Although there will be situations in business when you
will have to speak in an impromptu manner, you place
your professional reputation at risk if you fail to
prepare for those situations you can foresee.
Unlike carefully prepared presentation, impromptu
speaking tends to be relatively disorganized, imprecise,
and repetitive.
 Types…
4. Extemporaneous Speaking
An extemporaneous presentation is carefully prepared and delivered
from notes or an outline.
Although the method is not without disadvantages, it is clearly
superior to the manuscript, memorized, or impromptu deliveries.
Once mastered, the extemporaneous method of speaking will serve
you well any time you make a business presentation.
Advantages:
Conversational, Audience-pleasing style
 Greater command over the content of presentation (provides
flexibility)
Disadvantages:
 Stress associated with the process (misspeak or leave something
out)
Sacrifices a degree of precision and conciseness
May be too flexible for a presentation giver
 Presentation (steps)
Presentation is organized in terms of these five steps:
i. An attention-getting step- secure the attention of
the listeners.
ii. A need step- show the audience that there is a
need to be satisfied.
iii. A satisfaction step- propose a way that the
previously identified need may be satisfied; offer
a plan of action.
iv. A visualization step- Assist your audience to
visualize the results of satisfying the need.
v. An action step- tell your audience what action
they must take to put in place the plan you have
proposed.
 Delivery of Your Presentation
Your audience will both hear and see you:
 What they will hear is your vocal delivery, and
 What they will see is your body language
Vocal Delivery: the key factor in vocal delivery include:
 Vocal Expressiveness: variation in the pitch, rate, and volume of your
speaking voice.
 Vocal Emphasis: All words are not created equal; some are more
important than others. Vocal emphasis is achieved in three ways: by
the use of the pause, by variation in rate of speech, or by variation in
volume.
 Rate and volume: avoid two common problems among inexperienced
presenters: speaking too rapidly and speaking too softly. Try to speak
at about 150 words per minute
 Articulation and pronunciation: By articulation (also called
enunciation), we mean the precision and crispness of your spoken
words; by pronunciation we mean the sounds assigned to a given
word.
Body language: the two major categories of body language
Eye contact and
 Meetings Management
Reason for meeting
1.To Accept Reports from Participants
2.To Reach a Group Judgment to decision
3.To Analyze or Solve a Problem
4.To Gain Acceptability for an Idea, Program, or Decision
5.To Achieve a Training objective
6.To Reconcile Conflicting Views
7.To communicate Essential Information to a Group
8.To Relieve Tension or Insecurity by Providing Information and
Management’s Viewpoint
9.To Ensure That Everyone Has the Same Understanding of Information
10.To Obtain Quick Reactions
11.To Reactivate a Stalled Project
12.To Demonstrate a Product or System
13.To Generate New Ideas or Concepts
 MM…
1. To Accept Reports from Participants
Many organizations schedule meetings on a weekly
or monthly basis to allow managers to report on
the activities of their departments or divisions,
including an account of positive or negative
developments.
Can be:
Periodic meetings (upward, downward or
horizontal) or
Ad hoc meetings (called to receive reports on the
status of various projects within an organization)
 MM…
2. To Reach a Group Judgement to decision
There are many types of issues that demand decisions at a
meeting of executive decision makers
Decisions may be made in the following five ways:
I. By Unanimity – all participants agree on the decision.
II. By Consensus – although some members have
reservations about the decision, all participants support
the decision.
III. By Majority – more than 50 percent of the participants
agree on the decision; it is understood, however, that
the minority will support the majority decision once it is
made.
IV. By Plurality – the decision supported by the largest
number of participants is adopted even if the number is
less than a majority.
V. By flat – the boss makes the decision; other participants
are expected to endorse it.
 MM…
3. To Analyse or Solve a Problem
A meeting allows the knowledge and experience of
participants to be pooled and applied toward the analysis
and solution of problems
Such meetings often adopt the following well-known
approach:
i. Define the problem (as open questions).
ii. Assess the significance of the problem.
iii. Analyse the problem (duration, causes, effects)
iv. Establish criteria for evaluation solutions.
v. Generate possible solutions.
vi. Evaluate solutions (using the criteria form step 4).
vii. Select the best solution.
All seven steps are important, and they should be followed
in sequence
 MM…
4. To Gain Acceptability for an Idea, Program, or Decision
Meetings may be called to explain the rationale for a
given change and to respond to questions and objections.
5. To Achieve a Training objective
In one sense, all meetings have a training objective.
Meetings offer younger executives an opportunity to
observe and learn from more experienced executives.
Some meetings however, may be called for more explicit
training objectives. For example,
 Sales meetings may be called to provide sales
representatives with information and techniques required
to sell new or current products, or
 Mangers may meet to review performance evaluation
procedures.
 MM…
6. To Reconcile Conflicting Views
To ensure a sensible compromise that will allow conflicting sides
to work together peacefully, a meeting is called to air conflicting
view.
Such a meeting is most effective if it is chaired by an outside
consultant specializing in conflict-resolution techniques.
7. To communicate Essential Information to a Group
An example of such a meeting is information on the new federal
tax bill. The presentation, supported by a variety of carefully
prepared visual aids, is followed by a question and answer period.
8. To Relieve Tension or Insecurity by Providing Information
and Management’s Viewpoint
A meeting with employees allows management to convey
information personally, directly, and accurately.
A meeting may also allow employees to ask questions and
express their views.
 MM…
9. To Ensure That Everyone Has the Same Understanding of
Information
At times, an organization may choose to complement an
important written message with face-to-face communication,
especially if the massage is highly controversial or complex.
10. To Obtain Quick Reactions
Some managers occasionally call meetings to solicit
comments about decisions or plans still being formulated.
The comments may serve to alert management to possible
reactions to the decision or plan, thus affecting
implementation.
11. To Reactivate a Stalled Project
When a project is stalled for lack of an administrative
decision, a meeting may be called to force the decision. Such
meetings can be highly political in nature.
 MM…
12. To Demonstrate a Product or System
This may be internal (a meeting to demonstrate the
operation of the new corporate information center) or
external (a meeting to automobile dealers held by the
manufacturer to allow the dealers to observe and test-
drive the new models).
13. To Generate New Ideas or Concepts
A common approach to this type of meeting, called
brainstorming is characterized by these guidelines:
Ideas are not evaluated positively or negatively as they
are introduced: they are just recorded.
The emphasis is on the generation of as many ideas as
possible.
Ideas may be combined or modified.
The final list of ideas is evaluated
 Common Complaints about meeting
Complaints about Planning
An agenda was not prepared or sent out prior to
the meeting; hence, the participants were unclear
about the meeting’s purpose.
The wrong people were invited to attend (people
who should have been there were not, while those
who should not have been there were).
The time for the meeting was inconvenient for most
participants.
The room was too small for the number of
participants.
The meeting room was not set up correctly (wrong
arrangement, too few chairs, etc.).
 Complaints…
Complaints about Leadership
Meetings are often criticized for poor leadership.
Common complaints about ineffective leadership
include the following:
The leader did not follow the agenda; the meeting
went off track.
The leader was domineering, monopolizing meeting
discussion time and attempting to impose personal
views on the group.
The leader was weak, speaking infrequently and
failing to control disruptive participants.
The leader did not facilitate communication among
all the participants of the meeting.
 Complaints…
Complaints about Participation
Participants were unprepared for the meeting.
(they were unfamiliar with the agenda, they had
not read the back ground materials relevant to
the issues to be addressed, or they had not
prepared their own presentations carefully).
Some participants contributed too much at the
meeting. (this is especially a complaint about
high-status participants.)
Some participants felt insecure psychologically or
politically.)
Some participants were disruptive or
uncooperative, ether intentionally or
unintentionally).
 Complaints…
Complaints about Outcomes
The most common complaint about meeting
outcomes is, simply put, there “ain’t” any.
Decisions are not implemented.
Assignments agreed to by participants are not
done.
Recommendations are not passed on.
Findings are often ignored.
 Effective techniques of MM

Planning the meeting Equipment

A. What is the Objective Refreshments, and
of This Meeting? Room Layout will be

B. Who Should Attend required for the

This Meeting Meeting?

C. When and Where E. What should the

Will the Meeting Be Agenda Be?

Held?
D. What Materials,
 techniques...
An effective agenda should include the following
information:
Time of meeting
Length of meeting
Location of meeting
List of participants
Subject of meeting
Background information
Items to be covered
Pre-meeting preparation
 Techniques…
Leading Meetings
Starting time
 Starting at time will serve as an excellent attention-getting device
Opening Remarks
 Establish the right tone-usually serious and positive.
 Be sure to identify any participants unknown to the group.
 Offer any background comments that might prove useful
 Review the objectives as expressed on items
 Identify any time constraints not already expressed
Getting to Business
 Move to the first item on the agenda.
 Be careful not to let your opening remarks serve as a springboard for the group to get off
track.
Participation
 Facilitate balanced participation among meeting members.
Agenda
 Use your agenda to keep the discussion on track.
 If the discussion starts to drift from the item, firmly steer the group back to the item.
Closing
• Close the meeting at the appropriate time.
• Ask for any final comments or questions.
• Offer a summary of what has been accomplished at the meeting, and
 Techniques…
Effective Meeting Outcomes
It is a shame to carefully plan and lead a meeting only to see poor
results from your efforts.
 Assignments agreed to at the meeting are not completed,
 Decisions are not implemented, or
 Deadlines are missed.
To prevent these problems, meeting action plan is recommended
The meeting action plan replaces the traditional minutes of a
meeting.
i. First, it includes basic information about the meeting: subject, date,
name of chair, and recorder.
ii. Second, it describes specific action to be taken, the person
responsible, the deadlines for the actions, and completion dates.
iii. Third, it lists the key issues discussed and the participants.
iv. Fourth, it records the meeting length.
v. Fifth, it announces the next meeting.
A meeting action plan focuses on actions to be taken after the
meeting rather than simply recording the minutes.
 Interview
Is described as a conversation with a purpose.
An interview is a goal-driven transaction characterized by
questions and answers, clear structure, control, and imbalance.
An interview is usually a dyadic transaction, meaning that it
takes place between two people.
Sometimes, however, a person may be interviewed by two or
more people or in a panel situation.
The purpose of the interview, from the interviewer’s
perspective, is to obtain as much reliable and relevant
information and/or evidence as possible.
In general, interview is a face to face conversation conducted
between interviewer and interviewee.
It can be conducted through telephone other electronic media.
 Types of Interview and Required
Communication skills
Employment Interviews
 Are those in which a potential employer interviews a potential
employee.
Performance Interviews/performance reviews
 Are those in which an individual’s activities and work are discussed.
 Are most often conducted between employees and supervisors
Exit Interviews
 Are those that occur when a person chooses to leave a place of
employment.
 The conventional wisdom is that someone who is leaving may be
more likely to provide honest answers about organizational cultures,
policies, supervisors, compensation, and other aspects of the
workplace.
Information-Gaining Interviews
 Are those in which a person solicits information from another person.
Examples include surveys, a doctor asking you about your symptoms
 Types…

Persuasive Interviews
 Are those that have influence as the ultimate goal.
 The interviewer may appear to be gaining information
but is actually attempting to influence the thoughts or
actions of the interviewee.
 This form of interview may sound a bit manipulative and
perhaps underhanded, but it is quite common.
Problem-Solving Interviews
 When experiencing difficulties or facing an unknown
challenge, people may engage in problem solving
interviews, those in which a problem is isolated and
solutions are generated.
 Some other categories of interviews
Panel Interview:
 Is a conversation with two or more members of
interviewers, i.e. hiring team
 Be careful of your body language and eye contact as
each member on the panel is observing you.
 You should give the impression of speaking to all
the members
Telephonic/Phone interview:
 An interview for employment conducted on the
phone
 Are often used to screen candidates
 Consider it as a face-to- face interview by Keeping
your voice clear, steady, and audible.
 Other categories...
Lunch/Dinner Interview:
 It is more informal and conducive for those who
might be too busy for a traditional sit-down meeting.
 Be careful about your body language and manners.
 Don’t order liquor even if your boss does.
Sequential/serial Interview:
 Consists of several interviews that take place in
succession
 Each rates the applicant on a standard form.
 You should be very careful in your behavior, speech,
and manners as each member in your prospective
boss.
 Preparing to interview
Read the job analysis documents carefully to
familiarize you with the job requirements and the
criteria for assessment.
Read the applications and note any areas that need
special attention.
Take into account any other information that is
available about the candidates, e.g. aptitude or
personality tests results.
Have an interview plan that will enable you to obtain
relevant and comprehensive information from each
candidate.
Ensure that all preliminary arrangements for interviews
have been made.
 Preparing…
The interview environment
 You should pay considerable attention to environmental details,
such as room, seating, etc. to ensure that candidates are as
comfortable as possible during the interview.
 The physical arrangements in the interview room should be
conducive to a fairly relaxed exchange of information.
Questioning
 All questions should be clearly phrased and carefully articulated.
Listening and recording
 Clearly, good listening skills are an essential component of the
interviewer's repertoire. Give interviewees an opportunity to think
about their answers.
 As there are no obvious answers to open-ended questions,
candidates will need time to marshal their thoughts and decide
what to say.
Bringing the interview to a close
 Towards the end of the interview, give interviewees a chance to ask
questions or give you any further information they think is relevant.
 Planning for a successful job interview
(as an interviewee)
Learn about the organization, including its operations, markets, and
challenges.
Learn about the people who will be interviewing you
Plan for the employer’s questions, including questions about tough decisions
you’ve made, your perceived shortcomings, what you didn’t like about
previous jobs, and your career plans.
Plan questions of your own to find out whether this is really the job and the
organization for you and to show that you’ve done your research.
Bolster your confidence by removing apprehensions
Polish your interview style by staging mock interviews.
Present a professional appearance with appropriate dress and grooming.
Be ready when you arrive and bring along a pen, paper, a list of questions,
copies of your résumé, an outline of your research on the company, and any
correspondence you’ve had regarding the position.
Double-check the location and time of the interview and map out the route
beforehand.
Relax and be flexible; the schedule and interview arrangements may change
when you arrive.
 UNIT SIX

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
(WRITTENCOMMUNICATION IN
FOCUS)
Advantages of written communication
Unlike speech, written communication is permanent.
Can be easier to understand than speech. Readers can
study complex passages as many times as necessary, a
luxury they do not have when the same message is
delivered orally.
You can compose it in advance. You can take as much
time as necessary to shape a message just as you want
it, pondering every word if necessary.
Finally, written messages are less likely to be distorted
in the transmission. Even the best-rehearsed oral
presentations can go awry.
 Business Letter Writing
Business correspondence is the principal means by
which a business organization communicates in writing
with customers, suppliers, agents and so on.
Its primary value lies in providing a permanent record
of the many and varied transactions between the
company and its associates.
Typically, a letter is used for enquiries, quotations,
requests for payment, complaints and replies to
complaints.
The letter is said to act as an ambassador for the
company or individual who sends it.
If it is carefully composed and well presented, it will
enhance the sender's reputation;
If it contains mistakes or looks somewhat untidy, it will
have the opposite effect.
 Business Letters…
Purposes of business letters
Acknowledgement of orders
Notice of directors meeting
Price increments and etc.
Complaint letters
Applying for jobs
Letter of inquiry
Orders (placing an order)
 Business Letters…
Conventional parts of a business letter
All business letters have certain elements in common.
Several of these elements appear in every letter; others
appear only when desirable or appropriate.
All business letters typically include these seven
elements:
I. Heading
II. Date
III. Inside Address
IV. Salutation
V. Body
VI. Complimentary Close
VII. Signature Block
 Business Letters…
I. Heading/Letterhead/Return Address:
Shows the organization’s name, full address,
telephone number (almost always), and e-mail
address (often).
Executive letterhead also bears the name of an
individual within the organization.
Computers allow you to design your own letterhead
(either one to use for all correspondence or a new
one for each piece of correspondence).
If letterhead stationery is not available, the heading
includes a return address (but no name) and starts
13 lines from the top of the page, which leaves a
two-inch top margin.
 Business Letters…
II. Date:
 If you are using letterhead, place the date at least one blank
line beneath the lowest part of the letterhead.
 Without letterhead, place the date immediately below the
return address.
 The standard method of writing the date in the United States
uses the full name of the month (no abbreviations), followed
by the day (in numerals, without st, nd, rd, or th), a comma,
and then the year: July 14, 2008 (7/14/08).
 Some organizations follow other conventions.
 To maintain the utmost clarity in international correspondence,
always spell out the name of the month in dates. When
communicating internationally, you may also experience some
confusion over time. Some companies in the United States
refer to morning (A.M.) and afternoon (P.M.), dividing a 24-
hour day into 12-hour blocks so that they refer to four o’clock
in the morning (4:00 A.M.) or four o’clock in the afternoon
(4:00 P.M.).
 Business Letters…
III. Inside Address:
The inside address identifies the recipient of the letter.
For U.S. correspondence, begin the inside address at
least one line below the date.
Precede the addressee’s name with a courtesy title,
such as Dr., Mr., or Ms.
The accepted courtesy title for women in business is
Ms., although a woman known to prefer the title Miss or
Mrs. is always accommodated.
If you don’t know whether a person is a man or a
woman (and you have no way of finding out), omit the
courtesy title. For example, Terry Smith could be either a
man or a woman. The first line of the inside address
would be just Terry Smith, and the salutation would be
Dear Terry Smith.
 Business Letters…
IV. Salutation:
 In the salutation of your letter, follow the style of the first line of
the inside address. If the first line is a person’s name, the
salutation is Dear Mr. or Ms. Name.
 The formality of the salutation depends on your relationship with
the addressee. If in conversation you would say “Mary,” your
letter’s salutation should be Dear Mary, followed by a colon.
Otherwise, include the courtesy title and last name, followed by a
colon.
 If the first line of the inside address is a position title such as
Director of Personnel, then use Dear Director.
 If the addressee is unknown, use a polite description, such as
Dear Alumnus, Dear SPCA Supporter, or Dear Voter.
 If the first line is plural (a department or company), then use
Ladies and Gentlemen.
 Whether your salutation is informal or formal, be especially
careful that names are spelled right. A misspelled name is glaring
evidence of carelessness, and it belies the personal interest you’re
trying to express.
 Business Letters…
IV. Body:
 The body of the letter is your message.
 Almost all letters are single-spaced, with one blank line before and
after the salutation, between paragraphs, and before the
complimentary close.
 The body may include indented lists, entire paragraphs indented for
emphasis, and even subheadings.
 If it does, all similar elements should be treated in the same way.
Your department or company may select a format to use for all
letters.
VI. Complimentary Close:
 Begins on the second line below the body of the letter.
 Alternatives for wording are available, but currently the trend seems
to be toward using one-word closes, such as Sincerely and Cordially.
VII. Signature Block:
 Leave three blank lines for a written signature below the
complimentary close, and then include the sender’s name (unless it
appears in the letterhead).
 Business Letters…

Letter formats
A letter format is the way of arranging all the basic letter parts.
Sometimes a company adopts a certain format as its policy;
sometimes the individual letter writer or preparer is allowed to
choose the most appropriate format.
The three major letter formats commonly used:
i. Block format. Each letter part begins at the left margin. The main
advantage is quick and efficient preparation.
ii. Modified block format. Same as block format, except that the
date, complimentary close, and signature block start near the
center of the page. The modified block format does permit
indentions as an option. It looks more balanced on the page than
the block format does.
iii. Simplified format. Instead of using a salutation, this format often
weaves the reader’s name into the first line or two of the body
and often includes a subject line in capital letters. With no
complimentary close, your signature appears after the body,
followed by your printed (or typewritten) name (usually in all
capital letters).
 Memorandum
Is an inter-office correspondence
Many organizations have memo forms pre-printed, with
labelled spaces for the recipient’s name (or sometimes a
checklist of all departments in an organization or all persons
in a department), the sender’s name, the date, and the
subject.
You can arrange these four pieces of information in almost
any order.
The date sometimes appears without the heading Date.
The subject may be presented with the letters Re: (in place
of SUBJECT:) or may even be presented without any heading
(but in capital letters so that it stands out clearly).
You may want to include a file or reference number,
introduced by the word File. The following guidelines will
help you effectively format specific memo elements:
 Memorandum…
Addressees. When sending a memo to a long list of people,
include the notation See distribution list or See below in the
To position at the top; then list the names at the end of the
memo. Arrange this list alphabetically, except when high-
ranking officials deserve more prominent placement. You
can also address memos to groups of people—All Sales
Representatives, Production Group, New Product Team.
Courtesy titles. You need not use courtesy titles anywhere
in a memo; first initials and last names, first names, or even
initials alone are often sufficient. However, use a courtesy
title if you would use one in a face to-face encounter with
the person.
Subject line. The subject line of a memo helps busy
colleagues quickly find out what your memo is about.
Although the subject “line” may overflow onto a second
line, it’s most helpful when it’s short (but still informative).
 Memorandum…
Body. Start the body of the memo on the second or third line
below the heading. Like the body of a letter, it’s usually single-
spaced with blank lines between paragraphs. Indenting paragraphs
is optional. Handle lists, important passages, and subheadings as
you do in letters. If the memo is very short, you may double-space
it.
Second page. If the memo carries over to a second page, head the
second page just as you head the second page of a letter.
Writer’s initials. Unlike a letter, a memo doesn’t require a
complimentary close or a signature, because your name is already
prominent at the top. However, you may initial the memo—either
beside the name appearing at the top of the memo or at the
bottom of the memo—or you may even sign your name at the
bottom, particularly if the memo deals with money or confidential
matters.
Other elements. Treat elements such as reference initials,
enclosure notations, and copy notations just as you would in a
letter.
 Report Writing
Meaning of reports
A communication from someone who has to inform to someone who
wants to use that information.
It describes the events or individuals to someone who requires it.
The business reports are written by the individuals or by the
committees as a part of their regular duties.
Many of them are objective factual and impartial in nature and they
do not require interpretations or comments.
But, some reports can be prepared only after careful investigation,
experiments, research, surveys and logical thinking. Such reports often
end with expert advice, suggestions and recommendations.
Reports may be oral or written.
Business reports are of two types - informal reports and formal
reports. Informal reports are reports from person-to-person while the
formal reports are prepared in prescribed format which can be
statutory or non-statutory.
Reports may be periodic or routine; special, analytical or investigative.
 Purpose of business report
The report helps the management for evaluation,
assessment and appraisal of the employees and their
organizational activities
It forms a basis for their future planning and
development.
It helps the executives to secure efficient control over
the situations and to improve the organizational
structure.
 Types of business reports
Oral and written reports
A report may be either oral or written. An oral report is
simple and easy to present. It may consist in the
communication of an impression or an observation.
Sometimes it may be quite useful. But a written report is
always preferred. It enjoys several advantages over the oral
one:
An oral report can be denied at any time. But a written report
is a permanent record.
An oral report tends to be vague. It may be encumbered by
the presence of irrelevant facts while some significant ones
may have been overlooked. In a written report, the writer tries
to be accurate and precise.
A written report can change hands without any danger of
distortion during transmission.
A written report can be referred to again and again.
 Types of reports...
We can classify business reports in various ways. On the
basis of legal formalities to be complied with, we can
have (1) informal reports, and (2) formal reports.
Informal reports: An informal report is usually in the form
of a person-to-person communication. It may range from
a short, almost fragmentary statement of facts on a single
page, to a more developed presentation taking several
pages. An informal report is usually submitted in the form
of a letter or a memorandum.
Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared
in a prescribed form and is presented according to an
established procedure to a prescribed authority. Formal
reports can be statutory or non-statutory.
 Types of reports...
On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be
periodic or special:
Periodic or Routine reports are prepared and presented
at regular prescribed intervals in the usual routine of
business. They may be submitted annually, semi-annually,
quarterly, monthly, fortnightly, weekly or even daily.
Generally such reports contain a mere statement of facts,
in detail or in summarized form, without an opinion or
recommendation. Branch Managers of banks submit
periodic reports to the Head Office on the quantum of
business transacted during a particular period.
Special reports are related to a single occasion or
situation. A report on the desirability of opening a new
branch or, on the Unrest among staff in a particular branch
is special reports. Special reports deal with non-recurrent
problems.
 Types of reports...
On the basis of function, a report can be (1)
informative, or (2) interpretative:
If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue
or a situation, it is informative. On the other hand, if it
analyses the facts, draws conclusions and makes
recommendations, it may be described as analytical, or
interpretative, or investigative. If a report presents
production figures in a particular period, it is
informative. But if it goes into the causes of lower
production in that period, it becomes analytical,
interpretative or investigative.
 Types of reports...
On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with:
We can have a (1) problem-determining report, or (2)
fact-finding report, or (3) performance report, or (4)
technical report, etc. In a problem-determining report,
we try to determine the causes underlying a problem
or to ascertain whether or not the problem actually
exists. In a technical report, we present data on a
specialized subject, with or without comments.
 Characteristics of a good report
Precision. In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose
of writing it. His investigation, analysis and recommendations are directed
by this central purpose. Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the
report and makes it a valuable document.
Accuracy of facts. The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good
report. Since reports invariably lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts
may lead to disastrous decisions.
Relevance. The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but
relevant also. While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a
bearing on the central purpose, it is equally essential to see that nothing
relevant has escaped inclusion. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing;
exclusion of relevant facts renders it incomplete and likely to mislead.
Reader-orientation. A good report is always reader-oriented. While drafting
a report, it is necessary to keep in mind the person(s) who is (are) going to
read it. A report meant for the layman will be different from another meant
for technical experts.
Objectivity of recommendations. If recommendations are made at the end
of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as a
logical conclusion to investigation and analysis. They must not reveal any
self - interest on the part of the writer.
 Characteristics...
Simple and unambiguous language. A good report is written in a
simple, unambiguous language. It is a kind of scientific document of
practical utility; hence it should be free from various forms of poetic
embellishment like figures of speech.
Clarity. A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on proper
arrangement of facts. The report writer must proceed systematically. He
should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and
finally make necessary recommendations. He should divide his report
into short paragraphs giving them headings, and insert other suitable
sign-posts to achieve greater clarity.
Brevity. A report should be brief. It is difficult to define brevity in
absolute terms. Nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. All that can be
said is that a good report is as brief as possible. Brevity should not be
achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor should it be at the cost of
completeness. Sometimes the problem being investigated is of such
importance that it calls for a detailed discussion of facts. Then this
discussion should not be evaded.
Grammatical accuracy. The grammatical accuracy of language is of
fundamental importance. It is one of the basic requisites of a good
report as of any other piece of composition.
 Organization of reports
Introductory Material Supplementary Material
• Forwarding • Appendix
• Title page • List of References
• Preface • Bibliography
• Acknowledgements • Glossary
• Contents • Index
• List of illustrations • Signature and
• Summary or Synopsis designation
Body of the Report
• Introduction
• Definition of problem
• Methodology
• Findings
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
 Constituent Parts of the Reports
• Title/Title Page: It gives the title or the heading of the
report. It also contains the name of the author, name
of the authority to whom the report is submitted, the
number of the report and the date of submission.
• Letter of Forwarding: ‘Forwarding’ or ‘covering’ letter
is a routine letter for the transmittal of the report
from the writer to the recipient. It simply serves as a
permanent written record of the transmission of
report to its primary recipient. It also contains the
date of submission, the name and designation of the
writer and the name of the authority.
• Preface: Preface is the author’s explanatory remarks
about the report. It introduces the report and offers it
to the readers. It may contain almost all the
information of the covering letter.
 Constituent Parts…
• Acknowledgements: In acknowledgements the author’s
mentions the names of the individuals and the
organizations that have helped him in report writing.
• Contents Page: Contents page is essential for the lengthy
reports. It gives the titles, sub-titles and page numbers of
each chapter. It not only helps the reader to locate a
particular chapter but also gives him an overall view of the
report at a glance.
• List of Illustrations: the report consists of a page number
of pictures, diagrams, tables and other figures; a list of
illustrations is given after the contents page.
• Summary/Synopsis: The summary of the report is also
called as the ‘synopsis’ and, the ‘abstract’ of the report. It
gives substance of the report in brief. It describes the
methodology, findings, conclusions and the
recommendations in nutshell.
 Constituent Parts…
• Introduction to the study: The introduction includes a brief
historical background of the subject, scope of study, methods of
data collection, definition of problem and definitions of special
terms and concepts.
• Conclusions: The report writer analyses the data and draws
conclusions on the basis of his ‘findings’. The conclusions are
supported by the findings and their explanations and analysis.
The report writer may derive a number of conclusions based on
the analysis of different facts. They should be grouped suitably
and should be presented in the descending order so that
important conclusions are mentioned in the beginning.
• Recommendations: Recommendations logically follow the
conclusions of the findings: But all the reports do not include the
recommendations or suggestions. In some reports the
conclusions and the recommendations are combined. This
combination may suit the short reports up to five-six pages; but
for lengthy reports the recommendations, should be written
separately to suggest the future course of action.
 Constituent Parts…
• Appendix: The appendix contains diagrams, charts, maps,
pictures, statistical data and other material which supports
the main body of the report. The details which are
separated from the body of the report are included in the
appendix.
• List of References: The list of references helps the reader to
locate a piece of information in the original source. Some
reports are based on exclusive research. It is a customary
that the writer of such a report should give the list of
published or unpublished works referred by him in his
report. If this list is lengthy, it should be arranged in
alphabetical order and should be given at the end of the
report. If the number of references is small, they can be
mentioned in the footnotes.
• Bibliography: Bibliography is a list of published and
unpublished works to which the report writer is indebted
for certain ideas.
 Constituent Parts…
• Glossary: The technical or jargon words are usually
explained in the footnotes. If the number of such words
is large, a list of those words is prepared in an
alphabetical order.
• Index: In case of lengthy reports, an index is helpful to
the reader to locate easily and quickly any topic or sub-
topic of the contents. The entries in the index are made
in alphabetical order and page numbers are mentioned.
• Signature: A report is signed by a person who submits
it to the authority. If it is prepared by a committee, the
chairman of the committee signs it. Sometimes all the
members of the committee are required to sign it. The
members who disagree with certain matters in the
report usually sign it with a note of dissent.
END OF COURSE