Structural

Geology
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Rai
 CLEAVAGE
AND
FOLIATIONS
CLEAVAGE
A tendency to split along planes
other than bedding. Cleavage is
directly linked to other
deformation processes-
especially folding- and
metamorphism. It can help in
understanding the fold
geometry and the physical
conditions during deformation.
It may serve as a conduit for
ground water
Fabric
Is used to describe the spatial and geometric
relationships that make up the rock. It includes
planar and linear structures-bedding, cleavage,
and the orientation of minerals and their
relationship to texture.
Slaty Cleavage
Is a penetrative structure (occurs in all scale). It
consists of parallel grains of thin layer silicates (clay
minerals or micas) or thin anastomosing subparallel
zones insoluble residues produced by pressure
solution.
• Foliation is a common result, which allows us to estimate the orientation of s1

s1
Strain
ellipsoid

· s1 > s2 = s3  foliation and no lineation

· s1 = s2 > s3  lineation and no foliation
· s1 > s2 > s3  both foliation and lineation
Fig. Flattening of a ductile homogeneous sphere (a) containing randomly oriented flat disks or flakes. In (b), the matrix flows with
progressive flattening, and the flakes are rotated toward parallelism normal to the predominant stress. Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
• Foliation: and planar fabric element
• Lineation: any linear fabric elements
 They have no genetic connotations
 Some high-strain rocks may be foliated, but
they are treated separately
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
Cleavage
• Traditionally: the property of a rock to split along a regular set of sub-
parallel, closely-spaced planes
• A more general concept adopted by some geologists is to consider cleavage
to be any type of foliation in which the aligned platy phyllosilicates are too
fine grained to see individually with the unaided eye
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
Schistosity
• A preferred orientation of inequaint mineral grains or grain aggregates
produced by metamorphic processes
• Aligned minerals are coarse grained enough to see with the unaided eye
• The orientation is generally planar, but linear orientations are not excluded
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
Gneissose structure
• Either a poorly-developed schistosity or segregated into layers by
metamorphic processes
• Gneissose rocks are generally coarse grained
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
Slate: compact, very fine-
grained, metamorphic rock
with a well-developed
cleavage. Freshly cleaved
surfaces are dull
a: Slate
Phyllite: a rock with a
schistosity in which very fine
phyllosilicates
(sericite/phengite and/or b: Phyllite
chlorite), although rarely
coarse enough to see unaided,
impart a silky sheen to the
foliation surface. Phyllites
with both a foliation and
lineation are very common.

Figure 22.1. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks. a. Slate. b. Phyllite. Note the difference in reflectance on the foliation surfaces
between a and b: phyllite is characterized by a satiny sheen. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
Hall.
 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Schist: a metamorphic rock
exhibiting a schistosity. By
this definition schist is a
broad term, and slates and
phyllites are also types of
schists. In common usage,
schists are restricted to those
metamorphic rocks in which
the foliated minerals are
coarse enough to see easily in
hand specimen.

Figure 22.1c. Garnet muscovite schist. Muscovite crystals are visible and silvery, garnets occur as large dark porphyroblasts. Winter (2001)
An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 Foliated Metamorphic
Rocks
Gneiss: ametamorphic
rock displaying
gneissose structure.
Gneisses are typically
layered (also called
banded), generally with
alternating felsic and
darker mineral layers.
Gneisses may also be
lineated, but must also
show segregations of
felsic-mineral-rich and
dark-mineral-rich
concentrations.

Figure 22.1d. Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with obvious layering. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.
Prentice Hall.
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Simpler than for foliated rocks
Again, this discussion and classification applies only to rocks that are
not produced by high-strain metamorphism
Granofels: a comprehensive term for any isotropic rock (a rock with
no preferred orientation)
Hornfels is a type of granofels that is typically very fine-grained and
compact, and occurs in contact aureoles. Hornfelses are tough, and
tend to splinter when broken.
Specific Metamorphic Rock Types
Marble: a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of calcite or
dolomite. The protolith is typically limestone or dolostone.
Quartzite: a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of quartz.
The protolith is typically sandstone. Some confusion may result
from the use of this term in sedimentary petrology for a pure
quartz sandstone.
 Specific Metamorphic Rock Types
Greenschist/Greenstone: a low-grade metamorphic rock that typically
contains chlorite, actinolite, epidote, and albite. Note that the
first three minerals are green, which imparts the color to
the rock. Such a rock is called greenschist if foliated, and
greenstone if not. The protolith is either a mafic igneous rock or
graywacke.
Amphibolite: a metamorphic rock dominated by hornblende +
plagioclase. Amphibolites may be foliated or non-foliated. The
protolith is either a mafic igneous rock or graywacke.
Specific Metamorphic Rock Types
Serpentinite: an ultramafic rock metamorphosed at low grade, so that
it contains mostly serpentine.
Blueschist: a blue amphibole-bearing metamorphosed mafic igneous
rock or mafic graywacke. This term is so commonly applied to such
rocks that it is even applied to non-schistose rocks.
Eclogite: a green and red metamorphic rock that contains
clinopyroxene and garnet (omphacite + pyrope). The protolith is
typically basaltic.
Specific Metamorphic Rock Types
Skarn: a contact metamorphosed and silica metasomatized carbonate
rock containing calc-silicate minerals, such as grossular, epidote,
tremolite, vesuvianite, etc. Tactite is a synonym.
Granulite: a high grade rock of pelitic, mafic, or quartzo-feldspathic
parentage that is predominantly composed of OH-free minerals.
Muscovite is absent and plagioclase and orthopyroxene are
common.
Specific Metamorphic Rock Types
Migmatite: a composite silicate rock that is heterogeneous on the 1-
10 cm scale, commonly having a dark gneissic matrix (melanosome)
and lighter felsic portions (leucosome). Migmatites may appear
layered, or the leucosomes may occur as pods or form a network of
cross-cutting veins.
 S-surfaces
Planar and some curved structures in deformed rocks. They include
all cleavages and foliations commonly though as penetrative
structures. They also include nontectonic planar structure, bedding.
In areas of multiple S-surfaces, a series of subscripts is assigned
bedding being oldest is designated S0, S1 is the oldest cleavage (or
foliation) and any later structures are given numerically higher
subscripts.
 Cleavage and Foliation can be divided into

Continuous : Cut all the rock

mass.
Spaced: can be resolved into regions
of uncleaved rock separated by
cleavage planes spaced from less
than a millimeters to several
centimeters. The uncleaved zones
between cleavage surfaces are
called microlithons.
Spaced cleavage is divided into
• Disjunctive (cross-cutting and not related to original layering)
Disjunctive cleavage may be divided into:
styloitic
anastomosing
rough
smooth
• Crenulation (which crenulates preexisting layering)
Crenulation cleavage may be divided into :
discrete
zonal
Spacing in the different types of cleavage:
slaty cleavage (continuous) 0.01 mm to less than 1.o mm
crenulations cleavage 0.1 mm to 3cm
Shale usually display more closely spaced cleavage compared to sandstone that shows
wide space cleavage
 Cleavage types
Pressure solution
produces spaced cleavage by dissolving the most soluble parts of a rock mass
leaving behind discrete insoluble residues in irregular planar zones that define
cleavage (Fig. 17-8). Spacing of pressure solution ranges from less than a
millimeter to more than a centimeter. They may be irregular ( styloitic to
anastomsing to rough) to smooth, where rock mass is more severely deformed.
Slaty cleavage
is a planar tectonic structure resulting from parallel orientation of clays,
muscovite, and or chlorite. It is penetrative and develop generally in rocks of
fine-grained sedimentary and volcanic rocks, such as shale, mudstone, siltstone,
and tuff.
FORMATION OF SLATY CLEAVAGE:
Folding, Compression, Pressure solution, recrystalliztion and pure and simple
shears concepts.
 Cleavage types
Crenulation cleavage
cleavage marked by small-scale crinkling or crenulation. Most crinkles are spaced and
asymmetric, and the short limb becomes usually the cleavage plane. They commonly form by
deformation of an earlier cleavage or bedding.
Foliation
foliation is a term used to describe all type of cleavage slaty, crenulation and it is used also to
describe the planar structure in coarser-grained metamorphic rocks, such as schist and
gneiss where planar orientation of at least one mineral dominates the fabric (parallel of
mica, amphibole, and flatten of quartz grains).
Schistosity refers to foliation in schistose.
Foliation is easily recognized if there is an alternate of quartz and feldspars with mica and
amphibole.
 Cleavage types
Metamorphic differentiation:
formation of new layering by recrystallization or pressure solution. It is the
production of new minerals with new orientation.

Differential layering
the foliation that is produced during metamorphism and recrystallization.

At high temperature and pressure this process will be enhanced with processes and gniessic banding may be
produced.
Crenulations and spaced slaty cleavage may produce differential layering at low temperature and pressure.
 CLEAVAGE BEDDING RELATIONSHIP

The angular relationship between cleavage and bedding can be used

to determine whether one is observing the upright or the overturned
limb of a fold.
If bedding dips less steeply (lower angle but same direction as
cleavage) the rock will be on upright limb.
Care should be taken regarding the fold axis and timing of cleavage.
 CLEAVAGE REFRACTION
• Refraction of cleavage from layer to layer occurs where the texture
and composition-ductility- vary from layer to layer in rocks. The
angle between cleavage and bedding changes or refracts as the
cleavage passes from one layer to another
• Most slaty cleavage forms parallel to axial surfaces in folds but may
be displaced or fanned with respect to the hinge as folding proceeds
 LINEAR STRUCTURES
Any structure that can be expressed as a real or
imaginary line is linear structure or lineation.
Lineament is a topographic feature consisting of
straight or aligned surficial features such as valleys
and ridges.
 Non-penetrative linear structures
Non-penetrative linear structures:
Slickenlines: are the direct result of
frictional sliding.
Slinckensides: refer to the entire
movement surface develop on the fault
surface, bedding, and foliation.
Slinkenfibers: fibrous crystals of calcite,
quartz, chlorite or iron oxides where
their long axes are oriented in the
direction of movement.
Penetrative linear structures
Penetrative linear structures:
Intersection lineation (two cleavage or foliation planes)
Mineral lineation (alignment of grain aggregates of mica,
amphibole or feldspars)
Pressure shadow: of quartz, muscovite, chlorite, magnetite
on either side of single crystal of pyrite
Rotated minerals
Rods: rodding or grain aggregates of one or more minerals
such as quartz, feldspars and mica (it is common in
ductile shear zones)
Natural strain ellipsoids : long axes of pebbles, boulders,
vesicles and reduction spots.
Mullions: form at boundaries between differing rock types.
Boudinage: consists of lenticular segments of layer that has
been pulled apart and flattened (layer been segmented is
less ductile than enclosing).
Shape of boudins is affected by the degree of contrast between the
two rocks. Large contrast produces boudins with sharp edges,
and small contrast produces rounded boudins.
Boudins can produce under conditions of either ductile or brittle.
Under brittle condition most boudins are angler and space
between them is filled with less-competent rock
Type of Boudins
1) Ordinary boudinage:
consists of segmented, sausage shaped of a single layer in which the
lenticular segments parallel one another. It results from extension
of the layer in a single direction.
2) Chocolate-block (chocolate tablet) boudinage:
It is produced if layer-parallel extension has occurred in two
directions, the resulting boudinage consists of a series of three-
dimensional blocks.
Importance of Boudins
• They yield information about
strain, shear sense and
difference in competence.
• The neck line of the boudin is
the lineation and is
commonly oriented parallel
to the fold axes.
• Boundinage is frequently
seen in the limbs of the folds,
where most flattening and
layer-parallel extension
occurs.
 LINEATION AS SHEAR-SENSE INDICATORS

• Slickensides directly indicate

movement sense by the direction
of their lines and steps.
• Boudins indicate the extension
direction.
• Mineral lineations yields sense
of shear if the linear mineral is
segmented in the movement
direction.
• Rotated minerals are shear-
sense indicators-the direction of
movement is perpendicular to
the lineation (rotation axis)
 FOLDS AND LINEATIONS
• Intersection lineations tend to parallel fold
axes.
• Mullions and Boudin necks generally
parallel the fold axes.
• Mineral-elongation lineations sometimes
parallel fold axes and are sometimes
oriented oblique to normal to fold axes.
• Deformed lineations are strain markers that
can help to reveal the later deformation.