Unit 5

Communication and the

Internet

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Networks
Why computers are connected to networks?
• Network is a collection of two or more computers that are connected
together for the purpose of sharing resources and data. All types of
computers can be linked in networks.
• A server is a powerful computer that provides the network with
services,
such as storing files sending/receiving emails.

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Why are Networks used?
• Can support multiple users accessing multiple services at the same
time.
• Network allows
• To share data, to download data, to access internet, to send data
and to communicate each others

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Different Types of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

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Different Types of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
• covers a small geographical area, (such as Home, factory, hospital).
• Often single site
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Use the high frequency radio wave
• Use in home

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Different Types of Networks
3. Wide Area Network (WAN):
• Use for large geographical area
• Connected together with two or more LANs
• The largest wide area network is internet
4. Personal Area Network (PAN):
• Used for data transmission over short distance (such as laptops,
mobile phones and printer)
• distance up to 10 meters
• Use Bluetooth) technology
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Two Main Models of Computer Networks
1. Client-Server
• contains at least one server to provide services
• individual computers are client computers.
• Client request to Server.
• The server responds the client request.

2. Peer-to-Peer
• Do not have dedicated servers
• Each computer can acts as client and server
• Each computer can make request and respond
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Network Topologies
How the devices on a network are connected together.?
1. Bus Network Topology
2. Ring Network Topology
3. Star Network Topology
4. Mesh Network Topology

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1. Bus Network Topology
• Consists of a single cable to which each networked device is
connected.
• Messages are sent along the cable.
• At each end of the cable is a terminator.
• Only one message can be sent at any one time.
• A collision occurs when two or more network devices send a message
at the same time. ( making all the messages unreadable).
• The most common method is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

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Collision in BUS Network
• A collision occurs when two or more network devices send a message
at the same time. ( making all the messages unreadable).
• The most common method is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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Fig:Bus Network Topology

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2. Ring Network Topology
• The cable connects one network device to another in a closed loop,
or ring.
• Each network device has an 'in' and an 'out' connection.
• Messages sent on a ring network all travel in the same direction
• Without collision
• Data is passed from one device to the next until it reaches the
destination.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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Fig: Ring Network Topology

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3. Star Network Topology
• Each network device is connected to a central point.
• This central point is hub or switch
• the most widely used topology
• Require lot of cabling

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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Fig: Star Network Topology

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4. Mesh Network Topology
There are two main types of mesh topology
1. Fully connected, every network device is connected to every other
network device.
2. Partially connected, some network devices may be connected to
multiple other devices.
• Largest mesh network is internet.
• Fault tolerant
• Wired or Wireless

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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Fig: Mesh Network Topology

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Different ways to connect computers
1. Wired
2. Wireless

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Wire vs. Wireless
1. Wired
• involve a physical connection between the computer and the network.
• Most wired are made of Copper wire or Fibre optic
• Fibre optic is faster
2. Wireless
• Do not require a physical connection.
• Most wireless connections transmit and receive radio signals, but other
connection methods such as infra-red light can be used over limited
distances.
• Eg. Mobile phone network, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Wired
and Wireless Connection

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Network Data Speed
The speed of network allow to:
• discover whether an equipment upgrade is necessary
• estimate how long it will take to download a file
• discover whether actual performance lives up to the promises made
by the service provider.

• measured in bits per second (bps).

• High-speed networks can transmit billions of bits per second.

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Bandwidth and Latency
Bandwidth
• The amount of data that can be carried from one point to another
on a network in a given period of time
• Bandwidth is usually expressed as bits per second (bps).

Latency
delay that data travelling through a network might encounter.
• A low latency network suffers small delays
• A high latency network suffers long delays
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Protocols
• A protocol is a set of rules communication.
A protocol might contain details of:
• how each computer will be identified (its address)
• what route the data will take to get to its destination (routing information)
• how errors will be found and dealt with (error checking)
• whether each part of a message should be acknowledged as received correctly
• what to do if data isn't received correctly
• how the data is to be formatted
• how the data is to be sequenced
• how the speed of the sender and receiver can be synchronised .
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Different Protocols
1. Email Protocols
2. Network Protocols
3. Internet Protocols

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1. Email Protocols

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Used for sending email.

POP3: Post Office Protocol. Used for retrieving email from an email
server.

IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP allows emails to be

accessed using multiple email clients. Eg. from mobile phones or
tablets

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2. Network Protocols
1. Ethernet - Protocols that are used in wired LANs.
Cover everything from the physical parts of a network such as cable or optical
fibre

2. Wi-Fi - A digital communications protocol. Sets how data is

transmitted on wireless LANs.

3. TCP - Transmission control protocol that provides a reliable connection

between computers. Used to access the website.

4. TCP/IP - stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

TCP/IP is a protocol stack, which means that it is a collection of protocols that
work together.
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2. Network Protocols
4. HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol {HTTP)
Used for sending and receiving data between web browsers and web servers.

5. HTTPS - HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure It is the secure version of

HTTP. Data is encrypted.

6. FTP - File Transfer Protocol. Used for file transmission. For sending
web pages and files from client to server.

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Four Layers of TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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3. Internet Protocols
At the Internet layer, the Internet Protocol (IP) deals with:
• the addressing system to identify individual computers/servers on
the network
• splitting data into packets and adding the packet header with details
such as the sender/receiver addresses.
• Each device linked directly to the Internet has a unique IP address.

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Protocols of Application Layer
FTP, HTTP, HTTPs, SMTP, POP3, IMAP

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Mobile Communications
• A wireless network distributed through cells and eachh cell cover between 9
and 21 miles.
• Standard for mobile communications is GSM(called the Global System for
Mobile communications)
• New versions are called 'generations', as in 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G.)
• 2G is the first use of digital communication. Provide multimedia message
service(MMS)
• 3G and 4G use IP based protocol for data but 4G also use IP for Voice.
• 5G, is smarter, faster than 4G. It achieves peak speeds of 100 Gbps, 100
times faster than 4G. Able to handle emerging technologies, such as
driverlesss cars, etc.
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Network Security
Network security covers a wide range of activities that protect data
from threats to its
1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity (Correctness)
3. Availability

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Confidentiality
• protecting personal privacy and proprietary information.
• To protect data confidentiality, include:
(i) Ensuring only authorized person can access resources.
(ii) Stopping misuse- each users have given the permission to access
the data
(iii) Encrypting data- Unauthorized person can’t read it without the
encryption key.

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Integrity (Correctness)
• Data is useless unless it is correct.
• Data must not change the data or allow the data to be changed
without authorization.

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Availability
• Network is useless if the data cannot be accessed when it is needed.
• Data must be available when it is needed.
• Important to prevent failures caused by criminals.
• Eg. Denial of Service (DoS) an attack on a network that attempts to
prevent legitimate users from accessing its services.
• Slow down the network performance, delete or alter data, etc.

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Important of Network Security
Data stored on the network could be:
1) Required for the running of the organisation
• The business might have details of its customers, stock and
outstanding orders saved on the network.
• If the data were lost and the business failed to fulfil any remaining
orders, this could mean losing the trust of customers who then go
elsewhere. This could lead to the business going bankrupt.

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Reasons why Security is important
2) Private and confidential
• There are different types of private data.
• For example, a hospital stores patient details on its network, including
medical conditions and what drugs have been prescribed. There is a
legal requirement to keep personal data secure.

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Reasons why Security is important
3) Financially valuable
• Data stored on business networks might be financially valuable.
• For example, imagine a business was planning a huge sale to increase
its revenue and attract new customers. If a competitor obtained the
details of the planned price reductions before the sale started, it
could launch its own sale beforehand. It would undercut the business.

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Authenication and Validation
1) Authentication is the process of checking the identity of a user of a
computer system or network. This is often done by validating a
username and password against details stored on a central server.
(PIN (personal identification number) or fingerprint)

2) Two Factor Authentication- To improve the security that passwords

provide, use the secure tokens or SMS message.

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There are different ways to Secure
Network
1) Access Control
2) Firewall
3) Physical Security

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There are different ways to Secure
Network
1) Access Control is the method that controls whether a particular user
will gain access to a particular file.
• read-only access- the user can open the file and read its contents, but
can’t modify
• read and write access (modify access)- the user can read the file,
alter the contents and then save the changes.

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To Secure Network
2) Firewall:
• A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls
data that is moving from one network to another.
• A firewall inspects incoming and outgoing data and uses a set of
rules Example of the rules:
- stop some protocols from being used
- block some address
- stop attempts at hacking the internal network's servers

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To Secure Network
3) Physical Security:
• Controlling the access to the physical part of the network using
physical methods rather than software
• To ensure the physical security
• Accessed by authorized person
• Servers must be located in the locked room
• Entry/exit times can be recorded, etc.

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Cloud Storage
Advantages
• The cloud storage provider is responsible for the hardware your data is stored
on.
• Can easily change data and extra storage available.
• It is protected from loss due to fire, theft of computers/servers, electrical
failure, and so on.
• Provide the back-up of your data.

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Cloud Storage
Disadvantages
• If the cloud storage provider goes bankrupt, has a catastrophic
(harmful) failure or has its servers stolen, you would be unable to
access your data.
• The risk of data safely and security
• Requires a reliable, high-speed Internet connection

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To reduce impacts and risks from
disadvantages
• Many cloud storage providers will store your data at multiple
locations and multiple backup.
• You can encrypt your data for safety and security.

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Contemporary Storage and Security
NAS (Network Attached Storage) A hardware device that is connected
to a network to provide file storage for any device connected to that
network. Possible for it to be hacked remotely.

USB flash drives are easy to transport, relatively and very convenient to
use. Data can be easily lost.

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Cyber Attacks
It is any kind of electronic attack on a computer system, server,
network or other IT device.
• gain access to data contained within the system
• delete or modify information
• make the system unavailable for use
• physically damage a device

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Types of Cyber Attack
1. Social Engineering
• Attacks that rely on exploiting human behaviour.
• Three common forms of social engineering are phishing,
shoulder surfing and pharming.

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Phishing
• A phishing attack is an attempt to get sensitive, confidential
information.
• Target the usernames and passwords or financial details such as
bank account or credit card details.
• A typical phishing attack might start with an email that asks the user
to update details at a bank, online payment system, online auction
website or social network.
• Sometimes the reason given for this request is that there has been a
fraud attempt on the user's account.

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Shoulder Surfing
• Gaining access to information by watching someone enter it into a
computer system
• Used to get a person's username/password or PIN.
Eg. At a cash machine and sees the user enter his or her PIN on the
keypad . Once the PIN has been seen the card is stolen.

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Pharming
• Directing Internet users to a fake website that looks like a real one, in
order to obtain personal information such as passwords, account
numbers, etc.

• To prevent pharming, users should:

•

• check that the http address of the site is the one you intended to visit
• check that there is a secure connection (https) check the site's security
certificate
• install the latest security updates
• install antivirus software
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Technical Weakness
1. Unpatched Software
Thatt hasn't had the latest security updates applied to it, making it
vulnerable to attack
2. USB Devices
It might contain malware that could be transferred to your system or
copy data to the attacker via the Internet.
3. Eavesdropping
Intercepting data being sent to/from another computer system.

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Protecting Against Security Weakness
1. Design and Implementation of a software
2. Reviewing Code Vulnerabilities
3. Modular testing
4. Use and audit trail
5. Use secure operating systems
6. Provide effective network security
7. Ethical hacking
8. Review of users and network policies

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Protecting Security Weakness
1. Design and Implementation of a software
The software and system designers will need to consider the following:
• Authentication
• Access control
• Risky operations
• Encryption
• Threats

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Protecting Security Weakness
2. Check Code Vulnerabilities
A code vulnerability is when the code does the task intended but has
been written in such a way that it creates a security issue.
Two main types of code review
• Review by another programmer
• Automated review by software

3. Modular testing: testing each block of code as it is completed to

ensure the code works as expected.
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Protecting Security Weakness
4. Audit trail: is a record of activities that have taken place on a
computer system. This record is generated automatically and will
record what has happened and who or what made the change.

5. Use secure operating systems: Some OS are designed for security.

6. Provide effective network security. Keeping a network secure

requires effective management, monitoring and training of its users.

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Protecting Security Weakness
7. Ethical hacking: Prevent the cyber attack. It is looking for
weaknesses in software and systems so that they can be improved.
There are many ways:
Penetration Testing (Pen Testing): IT systems of an organization are
deliberately attacked to find any weaknesses. These attacks are run by
the employees of organization.
Commercial Analysis Tools: Use software tools to scan a system for
vulnerabilities. These commercial analysis tools or vulnerability
scanners can be either purchased or hired. These tools look for
common issues and alert the user.
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Operation system task
8. Review of users and network policies
Network should have the following policies:
• who is authorized to carry out activities on the network
• how and when patches to software should be applied
• access controls
• password requirements
• how security is set up and maintained
• what data audit trails should collect and how long they should be kept
for
• anything else relevant to the security and maintenance of the network.63
User Policies
User policies should contain the following:
• what use of the network is allowed or not allowed
• what will happen to the user if they do something unacceptable how
to report faults, problems and security issues
• security information, such as good practice when choosing and using
passwords.

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The Internet and World Wide Web
Internet: The Internet is a wide area network spanning the globe,
incorporating networks in governments, educational establishments
and businesses across the world.
(shortened form of the words 'inter' and 'network', interconnected
networks)

World Wide Web (WWW) is one of the services provided by the

Internet. The WWW has changed the ways in which people work, shop
and communicate.

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How the Internet Works
Domain Names
• used to identify one or more IP addresses(four octets of binary
numbers).
Eg, IP address of bbc.co.uk is 212.58.244.27.
Domain Name Service (DNS)
• This is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP
addresses.
Internet service provider (ISP)
• ISP is an organisation that provides its customers with a connection to
the Internet.
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Translating domain names to IP to access
the Website

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Packets Sending and Receiving
When an Internet-connected computer wants to send data to another whose IP
address it already knows the following happens.
1 The sending computer splits the data into packets.
2 Each packet has a header that contains the sender's address, the destination
address, the current packet number and the total number of packets that make up
the data.
3. Each packet is sent to your ISP.
4. Your ISP will have a router. This router will inspect the packet header and decide
where to send the packet depending on its destination IP address.
5. The packet is likely to end up at another router, which will again look at the
destination IP address and forward it on. This can happen many times before the
packet reaches its destination network and intended recipient.
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Packets Sending and Receiving
6. Once a packet reaches its destination, the receiving computer will put the data
back together from the packets. The packets might arrive in the wrong order and
have to be put back in order using the information in the packet header.

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Accessing the World Wide Web
Access the website by using a program called a web browser.
• many different web browsers
• they all use the same protocols

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How the world wide web works
• Enters the web address of the information.
• The computer uses a system called the domain name service (DNS) to find the IP
address of the required web server.
• The web browser connects to the web server using the IP address and requests
the relevant web page or other object.
• A web page is transferred from one computer (server) to another using HTTP or
HTTPS.
• Data sent from a web server to a web browser is in HyperText Markup Language
(HTML) format. The web browser displays the web page as described by the
HTML.
• If the user selects a hyperlink, then the URL that the link points to will be loaded.
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The need for IP Address
An IP address is a set of numbers that are used to identify one particular
computer. (Like postal address)
1. IP Version 4 (IPv4)
• four 8-bit numbers (octets) (Eg, 216.27.61 .137.)
• This contains 32 binary bits and provides only 4 billion unique addresses.
2. IP Version 6 (IPv6)
• 128 binary bits
• provide 3.4x1038 unique addresses (approximately 4.3 billion).
(E.g, 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB)

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Components needed to be access the
Internet

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Switch
• A switch is used to link the computers.
• Cables from each computer feed into it and so messages can be
transmitted from one to the other.
• Switches are 'intelligent'.
• They can read the destination addresses and send them to only the
intended computers.
• They can do this because they build up a table of all of the addresses
on the network.

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Wireless Access Point
• Wireless access points allow wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi.
• They convert data they receive through cables into a wireless signal
and vice versa.
• They are commonly used in public buildings to provide 'Internet
hotspots'.
• They are similar to switches but cannot direct messages to particular
devices.

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Routers
• Routers are similar to switches because they read the address
information, but they transmit the messages between networks.
• Switch does a single network, but router does across several network.
• The router links the home network to the Internet.
• Routers can have both cable and Wi-Fi connections.

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Modem
• A modem is needed to convert the signals in a LAN, such as a home
network, into signals that can be transmitted along the cables
provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• It could be a copper telephone line or cable, carrying electrical
signals, or a fibre-optic cable which carries the signals as light

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