Chapter 8

Feedback Controllers
On-off Controllers
• Simple
• Cheap
• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators
• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.

Examples
•Batch process control (PLC = programmable logic controller)
•Solenoid in home heating unit
•Sprinkler systems
•Cruise control?
 On-Off Controllers
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
Chapter 7

e = error =
set point – measured variable

Controller output has two possible values.

 Practical case (dead band)
Chapter 7

δ = tolerance

system never reaches steady-state

Chapter 7
 Three Mode (PID) Controller
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative
Proportional Control
Chapter 7

• Define an error signal, e, by e = Ysp – Ym

where
Ysp = set point
Ym = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)
 Since signals are time varying,
e(t) = Ysp(t) - Ym (t)
n.b. Watch units!!
Chapter 7

• For proportional control: p(t) = p + K ce(t) p = p - p

where,
p(t) = controller output
p = bias value (adjustable)
Kc = controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable)
Chapter 7

Standards (ISO/ISA)

3 – 15 psi
4 - 20 ma
0 – 10 VDC
  Proportional Band, PB
100%
PB 
Kc
 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
 Kc can be made positive or negative
 Recall for proportional FB control:
p(t) = p + K c e(t)
Chapter 7

or 
p( t )  p  K c Ysp ( t )  Ym ( t ) 
 Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)
“output increases as input increases"
p(t) Ym(t)

 Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

“output increases as input decreases"
 • Example 2: Flow Control Loop
Chapter 7

Assume FT is direct-acting. Select sign of Kc so

that KcKv > 0

1.) Air-to-open (fail close) valve ==> ?

2.) Air-to-close (fail open) valve ==> ?

• Consequences of wrong controller action??

  Transfer Function for Proportional Control:
Let p(t)  p(t) - p
Then controller input/output relation can written as
p(t)  K c e(t)
Take Laplace transform of each side,
Chapter 7

P(s)  K c E(s)
or
P(s)
 Kc
E(s)

INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION

Synonyms: "reset", "floating control"
P(s) 1
t
1
p( t )  p   e( t )dt  
I 0 E(s)  Is
I  reset time (or integral time) - adjustable
 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
 t
 integral provides memory of e
1
p( t )  p  K c e( t )   e( t )dt  most popular controller
 I 0 
• Response to unit step change in e:
Chapter 7
 • Integral action eliminates steady-state error
(i.e., offset) Why??? e  0  p is changing with
time until e = 0, where p reaches steady state.
• Transfer function for PI control P(s)  1 
 K c 1  
E(s)   Is 
Chapter 7
  Some controllers are calibrated in 1/I
("repeats per minute") instead of I .
 For PI controllers, p is not adjustable.
Chapter 7

Derivative Control Action

 Ideal derivative action
de
p( t )  p   D
dt
 Used to improve dynamic response of the
controlled variable
 Derivative kick (use -dym/dt )
 Use alone?
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
• Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Chapter 7

Parallel Form of PID Control

The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by

 1 t de t  
p  t   p  K c  e t   0 e t * dt *  τ D dt  (8-13)
 τI
 The corresponding transfer function is:

P  s   1 
 K c 1   τDs (8-14)
E s   τI s 

Series Form of PID Control

Chapter 7

Historically, it was convenient to construct early analog

controllers (both electronic and pneumatic) so that a PI element
and a PD element operated in series.
Commercial versions of the series-form controller have a
derivative filter that is applied to either the derivative term, as in
Eq. 8-12, or to the PD term, as in Eq. 8-15:

P  s   τ I s  1  τ D s  1 
 Kc    (8-15)
E s  τ
 I  Ds ατ s  1 
 Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
t de t 
p t   p  K c e t   K I  e t * dt *  K D (8-16)
0 dt
Chapter 7

Features of PID Controllers

Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick
• One disadvantage of the previous PID controllers is that a
sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause
the derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus
provide a derivative kick to the final control element.
Chapter 7
 Automatic and Manual Control Modes
• Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
Chapter 7

 Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
 Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
• Percentage of controllers "on manual” ??
(30% in 2001, Honeywell survey)
  Proportional Band, PB
100%
PB 
Kc
 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
 Kc can be made positive or negative
 Recall for proportional FB control:
p(t) = p + K c e(t)
Chapter 7

or 
p( t )  p  K c Ysp ( t )  Ym ( t ) 
 Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)
“output increases as input increases"
p(t) Ym(t)

 Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

“output increases as input decreases"
Liquid level transmitter
Is Direct-acting

Direct or reverse acting

of controller if control
Valve is a)air-to-close
b) air-to-open?
 Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
disturbance variable); y > 0 is off-spec.
Chapter 7
Chapter 7
Chapter 7

integral action ~ Kc /  I
 Summary of the Characteristics of the Most
Commonly Used Controller Modes
1. Two Position:
Inexpensive.
Extremely simple.
Chapter 7

2. Proportional:
Simple.
Inherently stable when properly tuned.
Easy to tune.
Experiences offset at steady state. (OK for level
control)
3. Proportional plus integral:
No offset.
Better dynamic response than reset alone.
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag
introduced.
 4. Proportional plus derivative:
Stable.
Less offset than proportional alone (use of
higher gain possible).
Chapter 7

Reduces lags, i.e., more rapid response.

5. Proportional plus integral plus derivative:
Most complex
Rapid response
No offset.
Best control if properly tuned.
 Example 3: Liquid Level Control
• Control valves are air-to-open
• Level transmitters are direct acting
Chapter 7
 Question:
1. Type of controller action? Select Kc so that
Kc Kv K p  0
Chapter 7

(a) air-to-open valve: sign of Kv?

(b) sign of process gain?