ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I

MEE 351 CLASS LECTURES

Osarobo Ighodaro
B.Sc (Lagos), M.Eng (Benin), PhD (Newcastle)
Turbines and High Temperature Fuel Cells.

www.osaroboighodaro.com, [email protected]
 ENERGY

 HEAT

 WORK
 Various Energy Sources and Conversion paths
Chemical
(Fuels)

Nuclear
Geothermal

Hydro,
Solar Wind,
THERM
AL Waves,
Tidal

Electrical Mechanical
 Energy can be described as either Stored or in Transition

Stored Energy Transition Energy

Work Heat
Chemical Mechanical Internal Electrical

Potential Kinetic
Due to height Due to Velocity

• Non-flow process: no change of potential or kinetic energy i.e. no change of mechanical energy

• Flow process: changes in both potential and kinetic energy

• Transition Energy (Heat and Work) can cut across boundaries of a system
 Concepts Definition
HEAT: is a form of energy which is transferred from one body to another from
a lower temperature to a higher temperature.
Heat is apparent during the process only and is therefore transitory energy.
If heat flows from B to A, there is a reduction in the internal energy possessed
by B and an increase in the internal energy possessed by A. Internal energy is a
function of temperature and must not be confused with heat. Heat is never
stored by a body

SYSTEM: is the collection of matter within prescribed and identifiable

boundaries.

Open System: is one in which there is transfer of mass across the

boundaries
 Work
Work is done when a force moves through a distance i.e it is the product of a force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force

• When a boundary of a closed system moves in the direction of the force acting on it, the surroundings is
said to do work on the system

• When the boundary is moved outwards, the work is done by the system on the surroundings

Work is a transient quantity which only

appears at the boundary while a change
of state is taking place within a system

 If the work is done by the system on the surroundings, the work is said to be positive. = + W

 If the work is done on the system by the surroundings, the work is said to be negative. = – W
 Heat
Heat (Q) is ‘something’ which appears at the boundary when a system changes its state due to a
difference in temperature between the system and its surroundings

Heat a transient quantity that must not be confused with the internal energy
possessed by the system
For example, when a gas in a well lagged cylinder is compressed by a moving
the piston to the left, the pressure and temperature of the gas increases, hence
the internal energy increases, since the cylinder is well lagged no heat can flow
in or out, the increased internal energy is thus caused by the work done by the
piston on the gas

 If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to be positive = + Q
 if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is said to be negative = – Q.
 Reversibility
When a system changes state in such a way that at any instant during the process, the state can be
located on the diagram, such process is said to be reversible

When a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and its surroundings can always be
restored to their original state

The criteria of reversibility are as follows:

• The process must be frictionless i.e no internal or mechanical friction
• The difference in pressure between fluid and its surroundings during the process must be
infinitesimal small i.e process must take place infinitesimal slowly
• The difference in temperature between the fluid and its surroundings during the process must be
infinitesimal small

Clearly, from the above, No process in reality is truly reversible, However, a close approximation can be
achieved in which the fluid at all times is in an equilibrium state and the path process can be retraced, although
the surroundings can never be restored
Reversible Work
Consider an Ideal Frictionless Fluid above a Piston in a Cylinder i.e temperature and pressure are
uniform and no friction between piston and cylinder wall

Let A = Cross-sectional area of the piston,

p = Pressure of the fluid
(p – dp) A = Restraining force exerted by the surroundings on the piston, and
dl = The distance moved by the piston under the action of the force exerted.
i.e., Work done by the fluid= (pA) × dl = pdV (where dV = a small increase in
volume)
Or considering unit mass
Work done dW = pdv (where v = specific volume)
For a mass m, dW = mpdv

When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state

points can be joined up to form a line on a diagram of
properties,
The workdone W on the fluid during any reversible process

W= m
if p can be expressed in terms of v, then it can be evaluated
Example
Unit mass of fluid at a pressure of 2.8bar, and a specific volume of 0.23 contained in a cylinder behind a
piston expands reversibly to a pressure of 0.72bar according to a law , where c is a constant. Calculate the
work done during the process
 W=

W= =

== 0.1481

= = = 0.454

Therefore
W=

W = 31764.87
Thermodynamic Cycle
When a fluid undergoes a series of process and finally returns to its initial state, it is said to undergo a
thermodynamic cycle

A cycle which consists only of reversible processes is a reversible cycle

A cycle plotted on a diagram of properties forms a closed figure and a reversible cycle plotted on a p-v
diagram forms a closed figure representing the net work of the cycle

The reversible process consisting of four

reversible processes 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4
and 4 to 1.

The network input is equal to the shaded

area
Example
Unit mass of a certain fluid is contained in a cylinder at an initial pressure of 21bar. The fluid is allowed to
expand reversibly behind a piston according to the law , until the volume is doubled. The fluid is then cooled
reversibly at constant pressure until the piston returns to its original position; heat is then supplied
reversibly with the piston firmly locked in position until the pressure rises to the original value of
21bar.Calculate the network done by the fluid for an initial volume of 0.06
 2 2
𝑝 1 𝑣 =𝑝 2 𝑣
1 2

Therfore = = 5.25 bar

= = area 12BA

i.e = where = 21x 0.06 bar

Therefore =
= =63050 Nm

=- =- 31500 Nm
Work done from 3 to 1 is zero, since piston is locked in zero, therefore

Net work done = + = -(enclosed area 1231)

=-63050 -31500 = -31550N m
Hence the net work done by the fluid is 31550 Nm
Work done is given by mfor a reversible process only
 Conservation of Energy & 1st Law of
Thermodynamics
• The concept of energy and the well known hypothesis that it can be neither created nor destroyed was
developed in the 19th century; this came to be known as the law of the conservation of energy.

• The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of this general principle with reference to thermal energy (heat) and
mechanical energy (work)

• When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the internal energy of the system is the same at the beginning and
end of the cycle

• During the various processes of the cycle, work is done on or by the fluid and heat is supplied or rejected, the net
work input is , and net heat supplied is .

• Since the internal energy of the system is unchanged, the 1 st Law of Thermodynamics states

• When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, then the net heat supplied to the system from the surroundings
plus the net work input to the system from the surrounding is equal to zero
+ =0
Example
In a certain steam plant, the turbine develops 1200kW. The heat supplied to the steam boiler is
3100kJ/kg, the heat rejected by the steam to the cooling water in the condenser is 2450 kJ/kg and the
feed pump work required to pump the condensate back to the boiler is 15kW. Calculate the steam
flow rate
The boundary is shown to encompass the entire plant. For unit mass
flow rate
= 3100 – 2450 = 650 kJ /kg
Let the steam flow be m kg/s, therefore
=700m Kw

And = 15-1200 = -1185 kW

Therefore + = 0, thus 650m – 1185 = 0

m= 1185/650 = 1.823 kg/s

i.e. Steam mass flow rate required = 1.823kg/s

 Non flow Equation

As discussed last week,

When a system possessing internal energy energy undergoes a cycle by heat and work transfer, then + = 0

This is true for a complete cycle when the final internal energy is equal to its initial value.

However, in a process when the final internal energy is greater than the initial internal energy, then
Gain in internal energy = Net heat Supplied + Net work input

The specific internal energy of a fluid depends on its pressure and temperature, it itself is a property

The change in internal energy from state 1 to 2 is given as

Internal Energy = net heat supply + net work input i.e.

The equation is known as the non-flow energy equation

QUESTION
In the compression stoke of an internal combustion engine, the heat rejected to the cooling water is
65kJ/kg and the work input is 110kJ/kg. Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the working
fluid stating whether it is a gain or loss

𝑘𝐽
𝑄 =− 65 ¿
𝑘𝑔

𝑊 =110 𝑘𝐽 / 𝑘𝑔
Q + W =𝑢 2 − 𝑢 1
-65 + 110 = 45 kJ /kg

i.E gain in internal energy = 45kJ/kg

APPLICATION OF 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO NON-FLOW SYSTEMS

Reversible constant volume process (Isochoric) i.e. v=constant

Reversible constant pressure process (Isobaric) i.e. p=constant

Reversible Temperature (Isothermal) process i.e.

Reversible Adiabatic process i.e.

PolytropicReversible process i.e.

 STEADY FLOW EQUATION

When a unit mass of a fluid with specific internal energy is moving with a velocity and is a height above a
datum, then it possesses a total energy of .
The rate at which the fluid flows through the apparatus is constant.

Consider a fluid flowing in steady flow with a

mass flow rate through an apparatus, constituting
an open system. The boundary cuts the inlet pipe
at section 1 and the outlet pipe at section2. this
boundary is sometimes called a control surface,
and the entire system, a control volume
 Assume that a steady rate of flow of heat is supplied and that is the rate of work input
on the fluid as it passes through the apparatus.

Consider an element of the fluid, of length and cross sectional

Area of inlet pipe then

Energy required to push fluid element across boundary

Therefore, energy required for unit mass flow rate of fluid =

energy required to exit mass flow rate across the boundary =

The energy entering the system consists of the energy of flowing fluid at inlet , the energy term , the heat
supplied and the work input

The energy leaving the system consists of the energy of flowing fluid at outlet , the energy term
Since there is steady flow of fluid into and out of the system, the energy entering must equal the energy
leaving i.e.

++ =

But the sum of the specifc internal energy and the term gives the symbol termed specific enthalpy i.e.

Thus the energy equation becomes

++ =
This equation is called the steady flow energy equation.

Consider any section of cross sectional area where the fluid velocity is then the rate of volume flow past the
section is
Mass flow is volume flow divided by specific volume i.e

This equation is known as continuity of mass equation

=
 QUESTION
In the turbine of a gas turbine unit, the gas flows through the turbine at 20kg/s and the power
developed by the turbine is 15000kW . The specific enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet
are 1250kJ/kg and 400kJ/kg respectively, and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet are
55m/s and 150m/s respectively. Calculate the rate at which heat is rejected from the turbine.
Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at inlet is
0.45/kg
Given m, W, h1,h2, C1, C2, v
Neglecting changes in height

++ =

=1512.5 Nm/kg = 1.51kJ/kg

=11250 Nm/kg = 11.25kJ/kg