Chapter 3

Internetworking
Internetworking concept,IPv4 & IPv6 Addressing, IPv4 &
IPv6 Protocol, Transition from IPv4 to IPv6, Address
Mapping, Error Reporting, Multicasting, Unicast Routing
Protocols, Distance Vector Routing, Link State Routing,
Path Vector Routing, Multicasting Routing Protocols,
Transmission Control Protocol, User Datagram Protocol
 Internetworking concept
1. Internetworking refers to a collection of interconnected packet switching and
broadcast networks connected by bridges, switches or routers that functions as a
single large network.
2. It refers to the industry, products, and procedures that meet the challenge of creating
and administering internetworks.
3. In this concept some different kinds of network technologies that can be
interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork.
4. Internetwork as abbreviated as Internet. However Internet is the largest internetwork
in the world.
 Internetworking concept
Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology,
but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local
area networks via some sort of wide area network.

The first two interconnected networks were the ARPANET and the NPL network via
Peter Kirstein's group at University College London. The network elements used to
connect individual networks in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, were
originally called gateways, but the term has been deprecated in this context, because of
possible confusion with functionally different devices. Research at NPL confirmed
establishing a common host protocol would be more reliable and efficient. By 1973-74,
researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom and France had worked out an
approach to internetworking where the differences between network protocols were
hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being
responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible, as
demonstrated in the CYCLADES network.

Today the interconnecting gateways are called routers. The definition of an internetwork
today includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as personal
area networks.
 Internetworking concept
To build an internetwork, the following are needed:- A standardized scheme to address
packets to any host on any participating network; a standardized protocol defining
format and handling of transmitted packets; components interconnecting the
participating networks by routing packets to their destinations based on standardized
addresses.
Another type of interconnection of networks often occurs within enterprises at the Link
Layer of the networking model, i.e. at the hardware-centric layer below the level of the
TCP/IP logical interfaces. Such interconnection is accomplished with network bridges
and network switches. This is sometimes incorrectly termed internetworking, but the
resulting system is simply a larger, single subnetwork, and no internetworking protocol,
such as Internet Protocol, is required to traverse these devices.

The Internet Protocol is designed to provide an unreliable packet service across the
network. The architecture avoids intermediate network elements maintaining any state
of the network. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize an appropriate
Transport Layer protocol, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides a
reliable stream. Some applications use a simpler, connection-less transport protocol,
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks which do not require reliable delivery of data or
that require real-time service, such as video streaming or voice chat.
 IPV4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally

defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a
router) to the Internet.

19.5
 IPv4 Address
• The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.
• An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
– The address space of IPv4 is 232 (4,294,967,296)
– Notation.
• Binary notation
• Dotted-decimal notation

19.6
 Example 19.1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution

We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B)

and add dots for separation.

19.7
 Example 19.2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation.

Solution

We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent (see Appendix B).

19.8
 Example 19.3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution

a. There must be no leading zero (045).

b. There can be no more than four numbers.

c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.

d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal

notation is not allowed.

19.9
 Classful Addressing
• In classful addressing, the address space is
divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.

19.10
 Example 19.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

c. 14.23.120.8

d. 252.5.15.111

Solution

a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.

b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C

address.

c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.

d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.

19.11
 Classes and Blocks
• The classful addressing wastes a large part of the
address space.
– Class A:
– Class B:
– Class C:
– Class D:

19.12
 Structure of IPv4 Address
• Consists of Net ID and Host ID.
- These parts are of varying length
- Depend on the class of the address

• Mask
– 32-bit number of contiguous 1’s followed by contiguous 0’s.
– To help to find the net ID and the host ID.
19.13
 Use of IPv4 Address
• Subnetting
– Divide a large address block into smaller sub-
groups.
– Use of flexible net mask.
• Supernetting
– Exhausted class A and B address space
– Huge demand for class B address space
– To combine several contiguous address spaces into
a larger single address space
19.14
 Subnetting

223.1.17.0/24, IP addresses are 2^(32-24) = 256

Subnet 1 needs 2^6=64, 223.1.17.0/26

last address: 223.1.17.63

Subnet 2 needs 2^6=64, 223.1.17.64/26

last address: 223.1.17.127

Subnet 3 needs 2^7 = 128, 223.1.17.128/25

19.15
19.15
 Use of IPv4 Address
• Address Depletion
– The flaws are combined with the fast growth of
Internet led to the near depletion of the available
addresses.

19.16
Classful Network Architecture

Class Higher bits NET ID bits HOST ID bits No. of No. of hosts Range
networks per network

0.0.0.0 to
A 0 8 24 2 7
2 24 127.255.255.
255

128.0.0.0 to
B 10 16 16 2 14
2 16 191.255.255.
255

192.0.0.0 to
C 110 24 8 2 21
2 8 223.255.255.
255

Not Not Not Not 224.0.0.0 to

D 1110 Defined Defined Defined Defined
239.255.255.
255

Not Not Not Not 240.0.0.0 to

E 1111 Defined Defined Defined Defined
255.255.255.
255
 Classless Addressing
 To overcome the depletion of address space.
 Restriction
– The addresses in a block must be contiguous.
– The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2.
– The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of address.
 Mask
– Consists of n consecutive 1’s followed by zeros.
– n can be any number b/w 0 and 32.

 Restriction
– The address in a block must be contiguous, one after another.
– The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (1,2,4,8…..).
– The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.

 Tips:
– In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t /n, in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and
the /n defines the mask.
– The first address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s.
– The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s.
– The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the formula
232−n.

19.18
 Example 19.5

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-decimal notation,

granted to a small business that needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block. The addresses are contiguous.
4
The number of addresses is a power of 2 (16 = 2 ), and the first address is divisible by

16. The first address, when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360, which

when divided by 16 results in 215,024,210.

19.19
Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.20
 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know that one of the

addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in the block?

Solution

The binary representation of the given address is

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 00010000

or

205.16.37.32.

This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

19.21
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution

The binary representation of the given address is

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get

11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111

or

205.16.37.47

This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

19.22
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution

The value of n is 28, which means that number

32−28
of addresses is 2 or 16.

19.23
 Example 19.9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and the number of addresses is to represent the

mask as a 32-bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is particularly useful when we are writing

a program to find these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can be represented as

11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000

(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find

a. The first address

b. The last address

c. The number of addresses.

19.24
 Example 19.9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the
given addresses with the mask. ANDing here is
done bit by bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if
both bits are 1s; the result is 0 otherwise.

19.25
 Example 19.9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. Oring here is done bit by bit. The result of

ORing 2 bits is 0 if both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The complement of a

number is found by changing each 1 to 0 and each 0 to 1.

19.26
 Example 19.9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal number, and adding 1 to it.

19.27
 Special Addresses
• Network address
– The first address in a block is normally not
assigned to any device; it is used as the network
address that represents the organization to the
rest of the world.
• Broadcast address
– The last address in a block is used for broadcasting
to all devices under the network.

19.28
 Routing in IPv4
• A router has two addresses
– An address through which the device inside of the
router can be accessed.
– Another address belongs to the granted block
(sub-network).

Sub
Sub
Internet
Internet network
network

19.29
 Hierarchy of IPv4 Addressing
• Each address in the block can be considered as
a two-level hierarchical structure: the leftmost
n bits (prefix) define
the network; the rightmost 32 − n bits define
the host.
• Why Hierarchy?

19.30
Figure 19.5 levels of hierarchy of a telephone network

19.31
Two Level of Hierarchy

19.32
Three Level of Hierarchy

19.33
Three Level of Hierarchy

19.34
 Addressing Allocation

• Responsibility is given to a global authority called ICANN (Internet

Corporation for Assigned Names and Addresses), presently known as IANA
(Internet Assigned Number Authority)
• ICANN does not normally allocate addresses to individual organizations.
• It assigns a large block of addresses to an ISP.
• ISP receives one large block to be distributed to its Internet users.
• Many blocks of addresses are aggregated in one block and granted to one
ISP which is known as address aggregation.

19.35
Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.36
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses).

The ISP needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as follows:

a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses.

b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addresses.

c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses.

Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are still available after these

allocations.

19.37
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution

Figure 19.9 shows the situation.

Group 1

For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This means that 8 (log2 256) bits

are needed to define each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses are

19.38
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 2

For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This means that 7 (log2 128) bits

are needed to define each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are

19.39
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 3

For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This means that 6 (log 264) bits are

needed to each host. The prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960

Number of available addresses: 24,576

19.40
Network Address Translation (NAT)
• Benefits
– Use of a single IP address among many devices in
a network
– Use of a dynamic IP address for home user for
sharing
• Private Addresses

19.41
Figure 19.10 A NAT implementation

19.42
Figure 19.11 Addresses in a NAT

19.43
Figure 19.12 NAT address translation

19.44
 NAT: Network Address Translation

NAT translation table

1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router
WAN side addr LAN side addr
sends datagram to
changes datagram 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from …… ……
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
138.76.29.7, 5001,
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
updates table
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2

138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80

D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80

D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3

4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives
changes datagram
dest. address:
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
19.45
Table 19.4 Five-column translation table

19.46
Figure 19.13 An ISP and NAT

19.47
 IPV6 ADDRESSES

Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is

still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and
other problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.

19.48
 IPv6 Address
• An IPv6 address is 128 bits long (16-byte).
• Hexadecimal Colon Notation

• Abbreviation

19.49
Figure 19.15 Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

19.50
 Example 19.11

Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution

We first need to align the left side of the double colon to the left of the original pattern

and the right side of the double colon to the right of the original pattern to find how

many 0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means that the original address is.

19.51
 Structure of IPv6 Address
• Type prefix
– For categorization,
– Variable length,
– No partial conflict among the different prefix

19.52
Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses

19.53
Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses

19.54
 Unicast Addresses
• For a single computer
• Two types of unicast addresses
– Geographically based
– Provider-based
• Fields
– Type ID (3-bit), Registry ID (5-bit), Provider ID (16-bit), Subscriber ID (24-bit),
Subnet ID (32-bit), Node ID (48-bit)

19.55
 Multicast address in IPv6
• For a group of hosts
• To deliver packets to each member

19.56
 Anycast Addresses
• For a group of nodes
• Packet is delivered to only one of the members of the anycast
group(nearest on or the one with the shortest route
• Used to assign an anycast address to all routers of an ISP that covers a
large area in the Internet.
• No block is assigned

19.57
Figure 19.18 Reserved addresses in IPv6

19.58
 Local addresses in IPv6
• to use IPv6 without connecting to the global
Internet.

19.59
INTERNETWORKING
In this section, we discuss internetworking, connecting
networks together to make an internetwork or an internet.

20.60
 20-1 INTERNETWORKING

In this section, we discuss internetworking, connecting

networks together to make an internetwork or an
internet.

Topics discussed in this section:

Need for Network Layer
Internet as a Datagram Network
Internet as a Connectionless Network

20.61
 Network Layer
• Need
– A frame has no routing info.
– DL layer has no routing info.
– For a router with 3+ NIC’s,
• how to deliver a packet through multiple links.
• How to find a next hop router
• Responsibility
– Host-to-host delivery
– For routing packets through the router and switches.

20.62
Links between two hosts

20.63
Network layer in an internetwork

20.64
 Network Layer
• Source
– Creating a packet from the upper layer.
• The header contains source and destination IP addresses.
– Checking the routing table to find the routing info (eg. Outgoing interface,
or machine address of the next hop)
– If the packet is larger than MTU, fragment it.
• Note that it is different from L4 segmentation/reassembly
• Router
– Routing the packet by consulting the routing table for each incoming
packet and find the i/f that the packet must be sent to.
• Destination
– Address verification.
– For fragmented frames, wait for all fragmentations then reassemble them
before delivering the packet to the upper layer.
20.65
Network layer at the source, router, and
destination

20.66
 Packet Switching
• Data transmitted in small packets
– Typically less than 1500 bytes (why?)
– Longer messages split into series of packets
– Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some
control info
• Control info
– Routing (addressing) info
• Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and past on to
the next node
– Store and forward
Use of Packets
 Switching Technique

• Station breaks long message into packets

• Packets sent one at a time to the network
• Packets handled in two ways
– Datagram
– Virtual circuit
 Datagram

• Each packet treated independently

• Packets can take any practical route
• Packets may arrive out of order
• Packets may go missing
• Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover
from missing packets
Datagram
Diagram
 Virtual Circuit
• Preplanned route established before any packets
sent
• Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier
instead of destination address
• No routing decisions required for each packet
• Clear request to drop circuit
• Not a dedicated path
 Virtual
Circuit
Diagram
 Virtual Circuits v Datagram
• Virtual circuits
– Network can provide sequencing and error control
– Packets are forwarded more quickly
• No routing decisions to make
– Less reliable
• Loss of a node looses all circuits through that node
• Datagram
– No call setup phase
• Better if few packets
– More flexible
• Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the
network
 Internet as an L3
• Switching at the network layer in the Internet uses
the datagram approach to packet switching.
– Use of globally unique address for each packet
• Communication at the network layer in the Internet
is connectionless.
– Each packet is treated independently by the
intermediate routers.
– Packets in a message may travel through different paths.

• Why?
20.75
 IPv4
The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the delivery
mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Datagram
Fragmentation
Checksum
Options
20.76
Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite

20.77
IPv4 datagram format

20.78
 IPv4 Header
• Variable length: 20-60 byte (multiple of 4)
• Contains routing information

20.79
 IPv4 Format
• Version (4-bit): currently 4.
• Header length (4-bit): the length of the IP header in 4-byte unit.
• Type of Services(TOS):
– This field was not used earlier because of the lack of standard
– DiffServ uses this field for differentiate packet types.

• Total length
– to defines the total length of the datagram including the header in bytes.
– 16-bit number, the maximum IP size is limited to 216 bytes, or 64 Kbytes.
– Total length of data = total length – header length

20.80
 IPv4 Format
• Identification
– A source node gives a unique ID to each packet.
– Identification, Flags, Fragmentation offset fields are used for fragmentation (will be covered
later)
• Time to Live (TTL)
– A packet has a limited lifetime in the network to avoid zombie packets.
– Designed to hold a timestamp, and decreased by each router. A packet is discarded by a
router if TTL is zero.
– Revised to hold the maximum number of hops the packet can travel thru the network. Each
router decrements it by one.
• Protocol
– To define payload protocol type
– 1 for ICMP
– 2 for IGMP
– 6 for TCP
– 17 for UDP
– 89 for OSPF

20.81
 IPv4 Format
• Header checksum
– An IP header is slightly modified by each router. At least TTL field.
– The checksum must be re-calculated by routers which is a kind of
general computers with more than one network interface.
– The checksum must be efficiently calculated with no need of special
hardware.
• Source address: is the IPv4 address of the source.
• Destination address: is the IPv4 address of the destination.
• Options
– Variable length
– For new protocols
• Padding
– To make the header a multiple of 32-bit words
20.82
Note

The total length field defines the total

length of the datagram including the
header.

20.83
Figure 20.7 Encapsulation of a small datagram in an Ethernet frame

One of the reason why “total length”

field is required.

20.84
Figure 20.8 Protocol field and encapsulated data

20.85
Table 20.4 Protocol values

20.86
Example 20.1

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as

shown:
01000010
The receiver discards the packet. Why?
Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits
(0100) show the version, which is correct. The next
4 bits (0010) show an invalid header length (2 × 4
= 8). The minimum number of bytes in the header
must be 20. The packet has been corrupted in
transmission.
20.87
Example 20.2

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in

binary. How many bytes of options are being
carried by this packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total
number of bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or 32 bytes.
The first 20 bytes are the base header, the next 12
bytes are the options.

20.88
Example 20.3

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the

value of the total length field is 0x0028. How many
bytes of data are being carried by this packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total
number of bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes
(no options). The total length is 40 bytes, which
means the packet is carrying 20 bytes of data (40 −
20).

20.89
Example 20.4

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few

hexadecimal digits as shown.
0x45000028000100000102 . . .
How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer
protocol?
Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes. The
time-to-live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This
means the packet can travel only one hop. The
protocol field is the next byte (02), which means
that the upper-layer protocol is IGMP.
20.90
 Fragmentation
• A IP packet can travel through many different networks using
different L2 (Data Link layers).
• The source node has no idea of the path and data link layer its
packets will travel.
• MTU
– Each DL has its own frame format and limitation.
– One of such limitation is the maximum size of the frame, which is
imposed by software, hardware, performance, and standards.

20.91
MTUs for some networks

20.92
 Fragmentation of IP
• The source node usually does not fragment the packet.
Instead, L4 will segment the data into a size that can fit into
L3 and L2 of the source.
• But, there is a possibility that a packet travel thru a link
whose MTU is smaller than one of the source node.
– Then, the packet must be fragmented to go forward the next hop.
– Each fragment has its own header mostly repeated from the
original packet.
– A fragmented packet can be further fragmented into even smaller
packet.
– Fragmented packets will be re-assembled only by the final
destination.

20.93
 Fields for Fragmentation
• Identification
– The source host generates the unique ID
• Flags (3-bits)
– Unused bit
– DF bit (Don’t Fragment)
• 1 – force the router not to fragment the packet. If the packet length is greater than the MTU,
the router will discard the packet and send an error message to the source
– MF bit (More Fragment)
• 1 – tell the destination whether or not more fragments follow
• Offset
– Unit of 8-byte
– Between the beginning of the packet to be fragmented and the beginning of the
fragment
• Intelligent Router (Switch) uses these fields for efficiency.
– PPD (Partial Packet Discard)
– EPD (Early Packet Discard)
20.94
 Flags (3 bits) used in fragmentation

• first bit: reserved (not used)

• second bit: = 1 requires the packet not to be fragmented
drops the packet if it is > MTU

• third bit: =1 more fragmented packets later

=0 the last fragmented packet

20.95
Fragmentation example

20.96
Detailed fragmentation example

20.97
1060

20.98
Example 20.5

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is

this the first fragment, the last fragment, or a
middle fragment? Do we know if the packet was
fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more
fragments; the fragment is the last one. However,
we cannot say if the original packet was
fragmented or not. A non-fragmented packet is
considered the last fragment.

20.99
Example 20.6

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is

this the first fragment, the last fragment, or a
middle fragment? Do we know if the packet was
fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one
more fragment. This fragment can be the first one
or a middle one, but not the last one. We don’t
know if it is the first one or a middle one; we need
more information (the value of the fragmentation
offset).
20.100
Example 20.7

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a

fragmentation offset value of 0. Is this the first
fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?

Solution
Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first
fragment or a middle one. Because the offset value
is 0, it is the first fragment.

20.101
Example 20.8

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is

100. What is the number of the first byte? Do we
know the number of the last byte?

Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the
offset value by 8. This means that the first byte
number is 800. We cannot determine the number of
the last byte unless we know the length.

20.102
Example 20.9

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is

100, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the
total length field is 100. What are the numbers of
the first byte and the last byte?
Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total
length is 100 bytes, and the header length is 20
bytes (5 × 4), which means that there are 80 bytes
in this datagram. If the first byte number is 800, the
last byte number must be 879.

20.103
 IPv4 Checksum

• IPv4 checksum use the 1’s compliment method (chapter

10)
• Checksum only computes for IP header, not data
• Upper layer has checksum for data portion
• Header always changes in each router
• Header is chunked to 16-bit sections for computing

20.104
Example 20.10

Figure 20.13 shows an example of a checksum

calculation for an IPv4 header without options.
The header is divided into 16-bit sections. All the
sections are added and the sum is complemented.
The result is inserted in the checksum field.

20.105
Example of checksum calculation in IPv4

20.106
IPv6
The network layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite
is currently IPv4. Although IPv4 is well designed, data
communication has evolved since the inception of IPv4
in the 1970s. IPv4 has some deficiencies that make it
unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.

Topics discussed in this section:

Advantages
Packet Format
Extension Headers

20.107
 IPv6: Advantages

• Larger address space.

• Better header format.
• New options.
• Allowance for extensions.
• Support for resource allocation.
• Support for more security.
IPv6 datagram header and payload

20.109
 Format of an IPv6 datagram

Priority
Protocol

20.110
Next header codes for IPv6
Priorities for congestion-controlled traffic

20.112
Priorities for noncongestion-controlled traffic

20.113
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers

20.114
Extension header types
Table 20.10 Comparison between IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers

20.116
 TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6

Because of the huge number of systems on the Internet,

the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 cannot happen
suddenly. It takes a considerable amount of time before
every system in the Internet can move from IPv4 to
IPv6. The transition must be smooth to prevent any
problems between IPv4 and IPv6 systems.

Topics discussed in this section:

Dual Stack
Tunneling
Header Translation
20.117
Three transition strategies

20.118
 Dual stack

Host uses DNS query result to determine which IP to use

20.119
Figure 20.20 Tunneling strategy

Popular used right now in many countries

20.120
Figure 20.21 Header translation strategy

20.121
Header translation
 Network Layer:
Address Mapping,
Error Reporting,
and Multicasting
ADDRESS MAPPING

The delivery of a packet to a host or a router requires

two levels of addressing: logical and physical. We need
to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding
physical address and vice versa. This can be done by
using either static or dynamic mapping.

Topics discussed in this section:

Mapping Logical to Physical Address
Mapping Physical to Logical Address

21.124
Figure 21.1 Mapping Logical to Physical Address
ARP (address resolution protocol)

21.125
21.126
Note

ARP can be useful if the ARP reply is

cached (kept in cache memory for a
while).

21.127
Figure 21.2 ARP packet

21.128
21.129
Figure 21.3 Encapsulation of ARP packet

21.130
Figure 21.4 Four cases using ARP

21.131
Note

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.

21.132
 Example 21.1

A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical address

B2:34:55:10:22:10 has a packet to send to another host
with IP address 130.23.43.25 and physical address
A4:6E:F4:59:83:AB. The two hosts are on the same
Ethernet network. Show the ARP request and reply
packets encapsulated in Ethernet frames.

Solution
Figure 21.5 shows the ARP request and reply packets.
Note that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and
that the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte
boundary. That is why we do not show the regular 4-byte
boundaries for these addresses.
21.133
Figure 21.5 Example 21.1, an ARP request and reply

21.134
Figure 21.6 Proxy ARP

21.135
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• A machine can use the phy address to get the logical

address using RARP.
• A RARP messages is created and brodcast on the
local network.
• The machine on the local network that knows the
logical address will respond with a RARP reply.
• Broadcasting is done at data link layer.
• Broadcast requests does not pass the boundaries of a
network.

21.137
Figure 21.7 BOOTP client and server on the same and different networks

21.138
Note

DHCP provides static and dynamic

address allocation that can be
manual or automatic.

21.139
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server
when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected an “on”
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
– host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
– DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
– host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
– DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
DHCP client-server scenario

A DHCP 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.1
server
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
B
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
E arriving DHCP
client needs
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1 address in this
network
 DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 arriving
DHCP discover
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
time Lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
ICMP
The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-
correcting mechanism. The IP protocol also lacks a
mechanism for host and management queries. The
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) has been
designed to compensate for the above two deficiencies.
It is a companion to the IP protocol.
Topics discussed in this section:
Types of Messages
Message Format
Error Reporting and Query
Debugging Tools
21.143
Figure 21.8 General format of ICMP messages

21.144
Note

ICMP always reports error messages to

the original source.

21.145
Figure 21.9 Error-reporting messages

21.146
Note

Important points about ICMP error messages:

❏ No ICMP error message will be generated in
response to a datagram carrying an ICMP error
message.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
fragmented datagram that is not the first fragment.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
datagram having a multicast address.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
datagram having a special address such as
127.0.0.0 or 0.0.0.0.

21.147
Figure 21.10 Contents of data field for the error messages

21.148
Figure 21.12 Query messages

21.149
Figure 21.13 Encapsulation of ICMP query messages

21.150
 Example 21.2

Figure 21.14 shows an example of checksum calculation

for a simple echo-request message. We randomly chose
the identifier to be 1 and the sequence number to be 9.
The message is divided into 16-bit (2-byte) words. The
words are added and the sum is complemented. Now the
sender can put this value in the checksum field.

21.151
Figure 21.14 Example of checksum calculation

21.152
 Example 21.3

We use the ping program to test the server fhda.edu. The

result is shown on the next slide. The ping program sends
messages with sequence numbers starting from 0. For
each probe it gives us the RTT time. The TTL (time to
live) field in the IP datagram that encapsulates an ICMP
message has been set to 62. At the beginning, ping defines
the number of data bytes as 56 and the total number of
bytes as 84. It is obvious that if we add 8 bytes of ICMP
header and 20 bytes of IP header to 56, the result is 84.
However, note that in each probe ping defines the number
of bytes as 64. This is the total number of bytes in the
ICMP packet (56 + 8).
21.153
Example 21.3 (continued)

21.154
Figure 21.15 The traceroute program operation

21.155
 “Real” Internet delays and routes

• What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

• Traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
– sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination
– router i will return packets to sender
– sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
 Traceroute Commands

Under Windows: “tracert”

Under Unix: “traceroute”

You can try it on eustis.eecs.ucf.edu

Traceroute from My Home Computer
21.160
21.161
21.162
21.163
21.164
21.165
21.166
21.167
21.168
21.169
21.170
21.171
21.172
21.173
21.174
21.175
21.176
21.177
21.178
21.179
21.180
21.181
21.182
21.183
21.184
21.185
21.186
21.187
21.188
 Unicast Routing Protocols:
RIP, OSPF, and BGP

• Distinguish between intra and interdomain routing

• Understand distance vector routing and RIP
• Understand link state routing and OSPF
• Understand path vector routing and BGP

193
INTRA- AND INTERDOMAIN
ROUTING
Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to as intradomain
routing. Routing between autonomous systems is referred to as
interdomain routing.

194
Figure Autonomous systems

195
Figure Popular routing protocols

196
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
In distance vector routing, the least cost route between any two nodes is
the route with minimum distance. In this protocol each node maintains a
vector (table) of minimum distances to every node. The table at each node
also guides the packets to the desired node by showing the next stop in the
route (next-hop routing.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Initialization
Sharing
Updating
When to Share
Two-Node Loop Instability
Three-Node Instability

197
Figure Distance vector routing tables

198
Figure Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

199
In distance vector routing, each node
shares its routing table with its
immediate neighbors periodically and
when there is a change.

200
Figure Updating in distance vector routing

201
Figure Two-node instability

202
Figure Three-node instability

203
RIP
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an intradomain routing
protocol used inside an autonomous system. It is a very simple protocol
based on distance vector routing.

The topics discussed in this section include:

RIP Message Format

Requests and Responses
Timers in RIP
RIP Version 2
Encapsulation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 204

Figure Example of a domain using RIP

205
RIP uses the services of UDP on
well-known port 520.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 206

14.4 LINK STATE ROUTING
In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology of
the domain, the node can use Dijkstra’s algorithm to build a routing table.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Building Routing Tables

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 207

Figure Concept of link state routing

Every router has knowledge about the network, but from

its own perspective.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 208

Figure Link state knowledge

Each router knows (maintains) its states of its links.

Each router floods this info (via a Link State Packet) to other
routers periodically (when there is a change in the topology,
or every 60 to 120 minutes).

Each router takes in this data and, using Dijkstra’s

algorithm, creates the shortest path tree and corresponding
routing table.

209
Figure 14.17 Dijkstra algorithm

210
Figure 14.18 Example of formation of shortest path tree

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 211

Table 14.1 Routing table for node A

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 212

14.5 OSPF
The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is an intradomain routing
protocol based on link state routing. Its domain is also an autonomous
system.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Areas
Metric
Types of Links
Graphical Representation
OSPF Packets
Link State Update Packet
Other Packets
Encapsulation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 213

Figure Areas in an autonomous system

214
Figure Types of links

215
Figure Point-to-point link

216
Figure Transient link

217
Figure Stub link

218
Figure Example of an AS and its graphical representation in OSPF

219
Table Link types, link identification, and link data

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 220

OSPF packets are encapsulated in IP
datagrams.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 221

14.6 PATH VECTOR ROUTING
Path vector routing is similar to distance vector routing. There is at least
one node, called the speaker node, in each AS that creates a routing table
and advertises it to speaker nodes in the neighboring ASs..

The topics discussed in this section include:

Initialization
Sharing
Updating

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 222

Figure 14.48 Initial routing tables in path vector routing

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 223

Figure Stabilized tables for four autonomous systems

224
BGP
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an interdomain routing protocol using
path vector routing. It first appeared in 1989 and has gone through four
versions.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Types of Autonomous Systems
Path Attributes
BGP Sessions
External and Internal BGP
Types of Packets
Packet Format
Encapsulation

225
Figure Internal and external BGP sessions

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 226

Figure Types of BGP messages

227
Figure BGP packet header

228
Figure Open message

229
Figure Update message

230
BGP supports classless addressing and
CIDR.

231
Figure Keepalive message

232
Figure Notification message

233
Table Error codes

234
BGP uses the services of TCP
on port 179.

235
Chapter 14

Multicasting And Multicast

Routing Protocols

 INTRODUCTION
 MULTICAST ROUTING
 MULTICAST TREES
 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 DVMRP
 MOSPF
 CBT
 PIM
 MBONE

236
Figure 14-1

14.1 Introduction: Unicasting

In unicast routing, the router forwards

the received packet through

only one of its interfaces.

237
Figure 14-2
Multicasting

In multicast routing,
the router may forward the
received packet
through several of its interfaces.

238
Figure 14-3

Multicasting versus multiple unicasting

Emulation of multicasting through

multiple unicasting is not
efficient and may
create long delays,
particularly with a large group.

239
 Application of Multicasting
• Access to Distributed Databases
• Information Dissemination: e.g. multicast
software updates to customers
• News Delivery
• Teleconferencing, Web Seminars
• Distant Learning

240
 14.3 Multicast Routing
Objectives
• Every member receives EXACTLY ONE copy of the packet
• Non-members receive nothing
• No loops in route
• Optimal path from source to each destination.

Terminology
• Spanning Tree: Source is the root, group members are the
leaves.
• Shortest Path Spanning Tree: Each path from root to a leaf
is the shortest according to some metric
241
 14.3 Multicast Trees
• Source-Based Tree:
– For each combination of (source , group), there is a shortest
path spanning tree.
– Approach 1: DVMRP; an extension of unicast distance vector
routing (e.g. RIP)
– Approach 2: MOSPF; an extension of unicast link state
routing (e.g. OSPF)
• Group-Share Tree
– One tree for the entire group
– Rendezvous-Point Tree: one router is the center of the
group and therefore the root of the tree.
• CBT and PIM-SP protocols.

242
Figure 14-4

14.4 Multicast routing protocols

243
 14.5 Distance Vector Multicast Routing
Protocol - DVMRP
• No pre-defined route from source to destination.
Tree is gradually created by successive routers along
the path.
• Uses shortest path (fewest hops)
• Prevent loops: apply Reverse Path Forwarding (RFP)
• Prevent Duplication: apply Reverse Path
Broadcasting (RPB)
• Multicast with dynamic membership: apply Reverse
Path Multicasting (RPM) with pruning, grafting, and
lifetime.
244
Figure 14-5

Reverse Path Forwarding

In reverse path forwarding (RPF),
the router forwards only
the packets that have traveled the
shortest path from the source
to the router; all other
copies are discarded. No Loops

245
Figure 14-6

Reverse Path Broadcasting

Prevent Duplication in RPF

246
Figure 14-7

RPF versus RPB

• The router with the shortest path to the source becomes the
designated parent of a network
• A Router forwards packets only to its designated child networks

247
 RPB creates a shortest path
broadcast tree from the source
to each destination.
It guarantees that each destination
receives one and only
one copy of the packet.

248
Figure 14-8

RPF, RPB, and RPM

RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB
to create a multicast shortest
path tree that supports
dynamic membership changes.

249
14.6

MOSPF

250
Figure 14-9

Unicast tree and multicast tree

251
14.7

Core-Based Tree
CBT

252
Figure 14-10

Shared-group tree with rendezvous router

253
Figure 14-11
Sending a multicast packet to
the rendezvous router

254
 In CBT, the source sends the
multicast packet (encapsulated in a
unicast packet) to the core router.
The core router decapsulates the
packet and forwards it
to all interested hosts.

255
 Chapter 23
Process-to-Process Delivery:
UDP, TCP, and SCTP

23.256
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 23-1 PROCESS-TO-PROCESS DELIVERY

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-

process delivery—the delivery of a packet, part of a
message, from one process to another. Two processes
communicate in a client/server relationship, as we will
see later.
Topics discussed in this section:
Client/Server Paradigm
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Connectionless Versus Connection-Oriented Service
Reliable Versus Unreliable
Three Protocols
23.257
Note
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery.

23.258
Figure 23.1 Types of data deliveries

23.259
Figure 23.2 Port numbers

23.260
Figure 23.3 IP addresses versus port numbers

23.261
Figure 23.4 IANA ranges

23.262
Figure 23.5 Socket address

23.263
Figure 23.6 Multiplexing and demultiplexing

23.264
Figure 23.7 Error control

23.265
Figure 23.8 Position of UDP, TCP, and SCTP in TCP/IP suite

23.266
 23-2 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a

connectionless, unreliable transport protocol. It does
not add anything to the services of IP except to provide
process-to-process communication instead of host-to-
host communication.
Topics discussed in this section:
Well-Known Ports for UDP
User Datagram
Checksum
UDP Operation
Use of UDP
23.267
Table 23.1 Well-known ports used with UDP

23.268
 Example 23.1

In UNIX, the well-known ports are stored in a file called

/etc/services. Each line in this file gives the name of the
server and the well-known port number. We can use the
grep utility to extract the line corresponding to the desired
application. The following shows the port for FTP. Note
that FTP can use port 21 with either UDP or TCP.

23.269
 Example 23.1 (continued)

SNMP uses two port numbers (161 and 162), each for a
different purpose, as we will see in Chapter 28.

23.270
Figure 23.9 User datagram format

23.271
Note
UDP length
= IP length – IP header’s length

23.272
Figure 23.10 Pseudoheader for checksum calculation

23.273
 Example 23.2

Figure 23.11 shows the checksum calculation for a very

small user datagram with only 7 bytes of data. Because the
number of bytes of data is odd, padding is added for
checksum calculation. The pseudoheader as well as the
padding will be dropped when the user datagram is
delivered to IP.

23.274
Figure 23.11 Checksum calculation of a simple UDP user datagram

23.275
Figure 23.12 Queues in UDP

23.276
 23-3 TCP

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol; it creates a

virtual connection between two TCPs to send data. In
addition, TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms
at the transport level.

Topics discussed in this section:

TCP Services
TCP Features
Segment
A TCP Connection
Flow Control
Error Control
23.277
Table 23.2 Well-known ports used by TCP

23.278
Figure 23.13 Stream delivery

23.279
Figure 23.14 Sending and receiving buffers

23.280
Figure 23.15 TCP segments

23.281
Note
The bytes of data being transferred in each connection are numbered by TCP.
The numbering starts with a randomly generated number.

23.282
 Example 23.3

The following shows the sequence number for each

segment:

23.283
Note
The value in the sequence number field of a segment defines the
number of the first data byte
contained in that segment.

23.284
Note
The value of the acknowledgment field in a segment defines
the number of the next byte a party expects to receive.
The acknowledgment number is cumulative.

23.285
Figure 23.16 TCP segment format

23.286
Figure 23.17 Control field

23.287
Table 23.3 Description of flags in the control field

23.288
Figure 23.18 Connection establishment using three-way handshaking

23.289
Note
A SYN segment cannot carry data, but it consumes one sequence number.

23.290
Note
A SYN + ACK segment cannot
carry data, but does consume one
sequence number.

23.291
Note
An ACK segment, if carrying no data, consumes no sequence number.

23.292
Figure 23.19 Data transfer

23.293
Figure 23.20 Connection termination using three-way handshaking

23.294
Note
The FIN segment consumes one sequence number if it does
not carry data.

23.295
Note
The FIN + ACK segment consumes
one sequence number if it
does not carry data.

23.296
Figure 23.21 Half-close

23.297
Figure 23.22 Sliding window

23.298
Note
A sliding window is used to make transmission more efficient as well as
to control the flow of data so that the destination does not become
overwhelmed with data.
TCP sliding windows are byte-oriented.

23.299
 Example 23.4

What is the value of the receiver window (rwnd) for host A

if the receiver, host B, has a buffer size of 5000 bytes and
1000 bytes of received and unprocessed data?

Solution
The value of rwnd = 5000 − 1000 = 4000. Host B can
receive only 4000 bytes of data before overflowing its
buffer. Host B advertises this value in its next segment to A.

23.300
 Example 23.5

What is the size of the window for host A if the value of

rwnd is 3000 bytes and the value of cwnd is 3500 bytes?

Solution
The size of the window is the smaller of rwnd and cwnd,
which is 3000 bytes.

23.301
 Example 23.6

Figure 23.23 shows an unrealistic example of a sliding

window. The sender has sent bytes up to 202. We assume
that cwnd is 20 (in reality this value is thousands of bytes).
The receiver has sent an acknowledgment number of 200
with an rwnd of 9 bytes (in reality this value is thousands of
bytes). The size of the sender window is the minimum of
rwnd and cwnd, or 9 bytes. Bytes 200 to 202 are sent, but
not acknowledged. Bytes 203 to 208 can be sent without
worrying about acknowledgment. Bytes 209 and above
cannot be sent.

23.302
Figure 23.23 Example 23.6

23.303
 Note

Some points about TCP sliding windows:

❏ The size of the window is the lesser of rwnd and
cwnd.
❏ The source does not have to send a full window’s
worth of data.
❏ The window can be opened or closed by the
receiver, but should not be shrunk.
❏ The destination can send an acknowledgment at
any time as long as it does not result in a shrinking
window.
❏ The receiver can temporarily shut down the
window; the sender, however, can always send a
segment of 1 byte after the window is shut down.
23.304
Note
ACK segments do not consume sequence numbers and are not acknowledged.

23.305
Note
In modern implementations, a retransmission occurs if the retransmission timer
expires or three duplicate ACK segments have arrived.

23.306
Note
No retransmission timer is set for an ACK segment.

23.307
Note
Data may arrive out of order and be temporarily stored by the receiving TCP,
but TCP guarantees that no out-of-order segment is delivered to the process.

23.308
Figure 23.24 Normal operation

23.309
Figure 23.25 Lost segment

23.310
Note
The receiver TCP delivers only ordered data to the process.

23.311
Figure 23.26 Fast retransmission

23.312
 23-4 SCTP

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is a new

reliable, message-oriented transport layer protocol.
SCTP, however, is mostly designed for Internet
applications that have recently been introduced. These
new applications need a more sophisticated service than
TCP can provide.
Topics discussed in this section:
SCTP Services and Features
Packet Format
An SCTP Association
Flow Control and Error Control
23.313
Note
SCTP is a message-oriented, reliable protocol that combines the best features of UDP
and TCP.

23.314
Table 23.4 Some SCTP applications

23.315
Figure 23.27 Multiple-stream concept

23.316
Note
An association in SCTP can involve multiple streams.

23.317
Figure 23.28 Multihoming concept

23.318
Note
SCTP association allows multiple IP addresses for each end.

23.319
Note
In SCTP, a data chunk is numbered using a TSN.

23.320
Note
To distinguish between different streams, SCTP uses an SI.

23.321
Note
To distinguish between different data chunks belonging to the same stream, SCTP
uses SSNs.

23.322
Note
TCP has segments; SCTP has packets.

23.323
Figure 23.29 Comparison between a TCP segment and an SCTP packet

23.324
Note
In SCTP, control information and data information are carried in separate chunks.

23.325
Figure 23.30 Packet, data chunks, and streams

23.326
Note
Data chunks are identified by three items: TSN, SI, and SSN.
TSN is a cumulative number identifying the association; SI defines the stream; SSN
defines the chunk in a stream.

23.327
Note
In SCTP, acknowledgment numbers are used to acknowledge only data chunks;
control chunks are acknowledged by other control chunks if necessary.

23.328
Figure 23.31 SCTP packet format

23.329
Note
In an SCTP packet, control chunks come before data chunks.

23.330
Figure 23.32 General header

23.331
Table 23.5 Chunks

23.332
Note
A connection in SCTP is called an association.

23.333
Note
No other chunk is allowed in a packet carrying an INIT or INIT ACK chunk.
A COOKIE ECHO or a COOKIE ACK chunk can carry data chunks.

23.334
Figure 23.33 Four-way handshaking

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Note
In SCTP, only DATA chunks
consume TSNs;
DATA chunks are the only chunks
that are acknowledged.

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Figure 23.34 Simple data transfer

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Note
The acknowledgment in SCTP defines the cumulative TSN, the TSN of the last data
chunk received in order.

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Figure 23.35 Association termination

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Figure 23.36 Flow control, receiver site

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Figure 23.37 Flow control, sender site

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Figure 23.38 Flow control scenario

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Figure 23.39 Error control, receiver site

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Figure 23.40 Error control, sender site

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