3.

4 Gravity, goeid and Height system

Vertical datums
 A vertical datum is realized by a vertical control network that
provides the basis for determining the height of a point on the Earth’s
surface.
 On the other hand, it is possible to determine heights of some isolated
points through terrestrial means by tying these points to the sea level.
 In most cases, accurate elevation information requires to complete
your surveying job.
 vertical datums are based on local geoid models of the Earth, like the
global geoidal model (EGM 96 and EGM 2008).
 Local (regional) geoidal model used for accurate survey for specific
area.
 Local geoid establish using RTK GPS or CORS stations.
 Since most surveying is land-based, this form of measurement is not
usually applicable.
 Cont.….

 Practical heights in geodesy, known as orthometric heights and

denoted by H, are referred to the geoid, which is an equipotential
surface of the earth gravity field approximated by the mean sea level
(MSL) surface to an accuracy of within ± 1.5 meters.
 The difference between the two surfaces arises from the fact that
seawater is not homogeneous and because of a variety of dynamical
effects on the seawater.
 The height of the MSL above the geoid is called the sea surface
topography.
 It is a very difficult quantity to obtain from any measurements;
consequently, it is not yet known very accurately.
 Height system

 The orthometric height is defined as the length of the plumb-line (a line that
is always normal to the equipotential surface of the gravity field) between
the geoid and the point of interest and as such is intimately related to the
gravity field of the earth.
 (As the plumbline is only slightly curved, the length of the plumbline is
practically the same as the length of the normal to the geoid between the
geoid and the point of interest.
 Since this height refers the geoid or mean sea level, it is called orthometric
height (H).
 Heights above the ellipsoid are often referred to as ellipsoidal height (h).
 The difference between the ellipsoidal height and orthometric height at any
location is called geoidal separation/undulation.
 Cont.….

 Ellipsoidal heights have to be adjusted before they can be

compared to orthometric (mean sea level) heights using Geoid
undulations (N).

 The relation between the two kinds of heights is shown below,

where the quantity N, the height of the geoid above the reference
ellipsoid, is usually called the geoidal height (geoid undulation)

 Thus, the knowledge of the geoid is necessary for transforming

the geodetic to orthometric heights and vice versa.

 Hence the equation h= H + N is valid everywhere to better than a

few millimeters.
 Fig. 1 Surface used in geodesy to represent the earth
 Gps survey provide ellipsoidal height (h)
 Mapping and construction requires height above the geoid (H)
 To know the geoidal heights (N), one also has to know the gravity field
 Leveling itself is affected by the gravitational field of the earth
 For small area h=H because N
Height differences from leveling
Principle of Precise leveling
 3.5 Transformation between Datum

 To measure terrain, surface features, position coordinates, and heights values at

points on the Earth’s surface, there need to be corresponding reference points or
surfaces known as datum points or surfaces, namely geodetic datums, to which
surveying and mapping results are referred.

 Geodetic datums provide initial data for all kinds of surveying and mapping work
and serve as the foundation for determining the geometric shape and spatial–
temporal distribution of geospatial information.

 The missions of constructing geodetic datums include determining and defining the
coordinate system, height system, and gravity reference system, and establishing
and maintaining the coordinate framework (horizontal and satellite geodetic control
networks), elevation framework (vertical control network).

 The datums are represented by the position coordinates and heights values at a
series of control points.
 Cont.….

In transforming coordinates from one datum to another it is necessary to

account for two items:
a) The location of the geometric center of each reference ellipsoid with
respect to the center of gravity of the earths or with respect to each other,
b) The difference in size and shape between the ellipsoids. It is usually
assumed that the axes of both datums are parallel to the axes of the
average terrestrial system.
Transformation model
 Carry out seven Parameters Transformation
three translation parameters (dx, dy, dz)
 three rotation parameter (θx, θy, θz)
one scale factor (s) (consider scale factor for x, y, and z are
constant)
 Always use the correct transformation parameter corresponding to
the associated reference frame.
 Cont.….

Convert from WGS 1984 to Clark 1880 (Adindan-37 N) via a 7-

parameter conformal transformation given in matrix notation as
 3.6 Terrestrial frames: ITRF, AFREF

Reference System vs Reference Frame

 What is a Reference Frame in practice?

 Earth fixed/centred RF: allows determination of station

location/position as a function of time
 It seems simple, but … we have to deal with:
– Relativity theory
– Forces acting on the satellite
– The atmosphere
– Earth rotation
– Solid Earth and ocean tides
– Tectonic motion

 Station positions and velocities

are now determined with mm
and mm/yr precision.
 Geodetic reference systems
 Geodetic reference systems are fundamental requisites for
accurate and reliable geodetic results
 Highly accurate, consistent and reliable realizations of the
terrestrial reference systems are required for measuring and
mapping the Earth’s surface and its variations in time.
 These terrestrial reference frames are the basis for many practical
applications, such as
 national and regional geodetic networks,
 engineering,
 precise navigation,
 geo-information systems,
 for scientific investigations in the Earth’s system (e.g., tectonic plate
motion)
 International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)
Definition of ITRF
 ITRF is the most precise Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed (ECEF) datum
 International Earth Rotation Service Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a
conventional terrestrial reference system
 It is defined and maintained by the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)
 The origin, reference direction and scale of ITRF are implicitly defined by the
coordinates adopted for the observation sites (Fiducial Stations and terrestrial
sites).
 The coordinates of the observation sites are determined by high precision space
measurement techniques
 5 space Geodetic Techniques used to establish ITRF
 Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)
 Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)
 lunar laser ranging LLR).
 DORIS
 GNSS: GPS, GLONASS, (Future: GALILEO, COMPASS, QZSS)
 The origin of ITRF is located at the center of mass of the Earth with an uncertainty of a few
centimeters.
 WGS84 is now more closely aligned to the ITRF and the difference between these two systems is
 Cont.….
 Established and maintained by the International Earth Rotation and Reference
Systems Service (IERS)
 International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is the realization of the
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)
 Adopted by IAG & IUGG in 1991 & 2007 and by CGPM in 2011 for Earth science
& timing applications
ITRF Defining Parameters:
 Origin: Center of the Earth System: defined by SLR
 Scale : Consistent with TCG: defined by VLBI & SLR
 Orientation: Equatorial: Same for all ITRF versions:
 Currently ensured by mainly GNSS/IGS network
 ITRF Origin & Scale are very critical for science applications, e.g. monitoring of sea
level variation
 Science Requirement: ITRF to be stable at 0.1mm/yr level
 Plate motion --> up to 10 cm/yr
 Earthquake dislocation --> up to several meters
 To be truly useful, coordinates are (should be) expressed in a terrestrial reference
system
 Cont.….
ITRF2008 Network Station Distribution
 Access to the ITRF and the IGS role

 Any GNSS network can easily be expressed in the ITRF using IGS (
International Association of Geodesy ) products (orbit, clocks, ERP: all
expressed in the ITRF)
 IGS/GNSS observations (RINEX files) & Products are publicly available
 IGS products (Orbits, Clocks and Earth Rotation Parameters) to be fixed in regional
processing
 Geodetic/mathematical procedure to express a GNSS network in the ITRF is also
available
Processed IGS/GNSS sites
 Advantage of ITRF
 The ITRF provides the fundamental basis to refer the geodetic observations
and estimated parameters to a unified global basis.
 High accuracy, consistency and long-term stability are required for
precisely monitoring global change phenomena as well as for precise
positioning applications on and near the Earth’s surface.
 The ITRF comprises concrete points (markers) attached to the solid Earth
crust with precisely determined coordinates (mean 3D positions of the
stations and their motions).
 is more precise and accurate TRF available today
 is the achievement of 30 years of international collaboration and investment
of IAG services
 needs to be maintained and improved over time
 GNSS and IGS publicly available products are essential
in accessing the ITRF
 GNSS, regional & national reference frames rely on the availability of the
ITRF
 The ITRF as a common standard ensures interoperability between geospatial
information systems
African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF)

 African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) is establish and maintain a unified

geodetic reference frame for Africa.
 Thus, facilitate meaningful and cohesive development projects, uniform
environmental and mapping programs as well as aid in resolving current and future
international boundary disputes.
 AFREF is, therefore, an African initiative to unify the geodetic reference frames of
Africa based on the ITRF through a network of Global Navigation Satellite System
base stations at a spacing such users will be at most within 1000 km of a base station.
 Due to the relative lower cost of GNSS stations, and the fact that densification and
good geometrical coverage can currently only be obtained with GNSS the reference
frame will be based on GNSS.
 Full implementation include a unified vertical datum and support for efforts to establish
a precise African geoid, in concert with the African Geoid project activities.
 African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) tied to the International Terrestrial
Reference Frame, referred to some specific epoch.
 Regional Reference Frames: rely on the ITRF
 Many countries have redefined their geodetic systems to be compatible with/related to
ITRF
 To facilitate coordination, AFREF has been divided into five sub-regional
levels; which includes NAFREF (North), SAFREF(South),
CAFREF(Center), EAFREF(East), and WAFREF(West)
 Determining the relationship between the existing national reference frames
and the new system (and ITRS) in order to preserve legacy information of
the existing frames.
 The realization of AFREF has vast potentials for geodynamics, geodesy,
mapping, surveying, geo-information, earthquakes, natural hazards
mitigation, earth sciences, etc.