E.P.

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

COURSE TITLE: ELCfUP/JHS

COURSE CODE: TEUP307/
TEJS303
TUTOR: MR. GODSWAY ASIGBE
Learning Objectives
• By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Define Curriculum
• Provide brief history of curriculum
• Define Syllabus
• Differentiate between curriculum and syllabus
Conceptions of Curriculum
• In one sentence explain the meaning of curriculum
 INTRODUCTION
Curriculum is an important element of education. Aims of
education are reflected in the curriculum. In other words,
the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society.
Aims of life and society are subject to constant change.
Hence, the aims of education are also
subject to change and dynamic. The aims of education are
attained by the school programmes, concerning knowledge,
experiences, activities, skills and values. The different school
programmes are jointly known as curriculum.
Conceptions of Curriculum
• Curriculum has been considered as a new field of
study
• Efforts are being made for:
1. Appropriate definition
2. Ascertaining parameters
3. Seeking a measure of recognition commensurate
with its bordering fields of scholarship
• Every new field has its own conflicting schools of
thought
Conceptions of Curriculum
• The concept curriculum has undergone
marked changes during the 20th century
without any consensus on appropriate
definition
Conceptions of Curriculum
• Curriculum as a racecourse: The term ‘Curriculum’
is historically traced to the Latin word, “curere,”
which means ‘running course’ or ‘racecourse’
(Connelly & Lantz, 1991; Tanner & Tanner, 2007).

• Curriculum as a notion: At present, it is used as a

metaphor to describe some notion of a course of
events, e.g. school documents, newspaper articles,
committee reports, and many academic textbooks.
Conceptions of Curriculum & Definitions
• Sometimes it is narrowly defined to imply a subject
of study and another time it is broadly described to
include every aspect of an educational set up
(Tamakloe, 1992).

• Portelli (1987) observed that there are more than

120 definitions of the term appearing in the
professional literature.
Definitions of Curriculum
A proposed modern definition of curriculum
• Tanner & Tanner (2007) have proposed a modern definition of curriculum
• The definition is based on:
1. Progressivist conception of curriculum
2. The interactions of
a) the nature of the learner
b) the world of knowledge, and
c) society
• Tanner & Tanner based their definition on John
Dewey’s definition of education.
Definitions of Curriculum
• Definition of education by John Dewey:

Education is that reconstruction or reorganisation of

experience which adds to the meaning of
experience, and which increases ability to direct the
course of subsequent experience (1916, pp.89-90
Definitions of Curriculum
• Tanner & Tanner’s definition of curriculum

Curriculum is that reconstruction of knowledge and experience that

enables the learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of
subsequent knowledge and experience (2007, p.99)
Definitions of Curriculum
• Identify three characteristics of Tanner and Tanner definition of
curriculum
Definitions of Curriculum
• Characteristics of the definition:
1. Curriculum is generative
2. Curriculum is not inert or passive as others define it
3. The definition considers knowledge as dynamic
4. It encompasses not only formal subject matter but also the
processes through which the learner becomes increasingly
knowledgeable
Definitions of Curriculum
NARROW DIFINITIONS
• From the narrow perspective, curriculum is seen as:
a) The whole body of courses offered in an educational
institution or by a department
b) b) A course, especially, a specified fixed course of study, in
a school or college as one leading to a degree
According to Barakett and Cleghern (2000), curriculum refers
to the courses or subjects specified by the Ministry of
Education that are to be taught at each grade level as well as
the amount of time to be devoted to each
NARROW DIFINITIONS OF
CURRICULUM
•McNeil (1985) also refers to
curriculum as a course of study to
be taught to students in an
educational institution
Common Features of Narrow Definitions of
Curriculum
1. Curriculum is limited to academic work in the form of
subjects or courses to be taught like program of studies.
2. Narrow definitions conceive curriculum as consisting of
information recorded in guides and textbook and overlook
some additional elements that make learning complete.
3. It equates curriculum with written prescriptions of what
is intended to happen in school.
Broad Definitions of Curriculum

•Curriculum is what goes on in schools

and training institutions (Mathew 1989).
•All learning experiences that learners
have in the course of living (Antwi, 2009}
Criticisms of Broad Definition of Curriculum
• It fails to differentiate between educative and other kinds of
experiences (non- educative and mis-educative) that students are
exposed to in schools and other training institutions.
• There is the tendency to bring unintended negative outcomes of
schools under curriculum. E.g. drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, the
result of peer influence and negative aspect of school socialization.
• Viewing curriculum as all life experiences of learners makes no
distinction between what happens school and what happens in life
generally.
Midway Definition of Curriculum
• From the midway point of view, curriculum is seen as:
• All planned learning for which the school is responsible
(Eisner, 1994).
• All the experiences that learners have under the guidance of
the school (Doll, 1998).
• All the learning which is planned and guided by the school,
whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside and
outside the school. (Kerr, 2002).
Midway Definition of Curriculum
• A series of planned events that are intended to have educational
consequences for one or more students. ( Eisner, 1994)
• The formal and informal content and process by which learners gain
knowledge and understanding, develop skills and alter attitudes,
appreciations and values under the auspices of the school (Doll, 1989).
• A program of selected contents and learning experiences offered by
the school and capable of their modifying or changing learners’
behaviour.
• The sum total of educationally valuable experiences the learners
undergo, under the guidance of the school or other training institution
(Adentwi, 2005).
 ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM
• The school curriculum has four key elements that
are in constant interaction. These elements are:
1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3. Curriculum Experience or Learning Experience
4. Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
The purpose of a curriculum:
• Is based on the social aspirations of society
• Outlines the goals and aims of the programme and
• Is expressed as goals and objectives
There are three categories of goals and objectives:
• Cognitive, referring to intellectual tasks
• Psychomotor, referring to muscular skills and
• Affective, referring to feeling and emotions.
Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
The content of the curriculum:
• Isdivided into bodies of knowledge, for example,
management, economics, mathematics, geography, etc
• Outlines the desired attitudes and values
• Includes cherished skills
• Is determined by prevailing theories of knowledge
and considerations
Curriculum Experience or Learning
Experience/ Methods
The methods outlined in a curriculum:
• deal with teaching and learning
experiences and
• involve organizational strategies
Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation is used to:
• select appropriate content based on the aims
and objectives of the curriculum
• select appropriate methods to address the
content and purpose;
• check the effectiveness of methods and learning
experiences used
Curriculum Evaluation
•check on the suitability and
appropriateness of the curriculum in
answering social needs
• provide feedback to planners,
learners, teachers, industry and society
• provide a rationale for making changes
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
1. Ideological curriculum – ideal curriculum construed by scholars and
teachers
2. The formal curriculum – officially approved curriculum by the state
– The sanctioned curriculum that represents society’s interests
3. The perceived curriculum – what stakeholders, e.g. parents,
teachers, … think it should be
4. The operational curriculum – what is actually implemented in the
classroom
5. The experiential curriculum – what the learners actually experience
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Glatthorn, Boschee & Whitehead (2006)
1. Recommended curriculum – the ought-ness (ideological)
2. Written curriculum – embodied in approved guides (similar to Goodlad’s formal curriculum)
3. Supported curriculum – as reflected in and shaped by resources, e.g. time, personnel,
textbooks –needed to deliver it
4. Taught curriculum – the delivered curriculum in action
5. Tested curriculum – that set of learnings assessed in teacher-made-tests, district
curriculum-referenced tests, standardized tests
6. Learned curriculum – changes in values, perceptions & behaviour as a result of school
experiences
7. Hidden curriculum or unstudied curriculum or the implicit curriculum – curriculum other
than the intentional one
Definitions of a syllabus

• What is syllabus?
GROUP WORK
•Provide a working definition of:
a. Curriculum
b. Syllabus
c. Discuss the differences between
curriculum and syllabus
LECTURE 2&3
Theories and models of curriculum development
Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by theory
2. Identify and explain at least two theories of
curriculum development
3. Explain what is meant by model
4. Discuss three models of curriculum
Theories and models of curriculum
development
•What is theory?
•What is model
•What is curriculum
•What is development
Theories of Curriculum Development
To start with, there are two broad categories of philosophy: the
traditional and modern philosophies. In each of those categories,
there are major philosophies such as idealism, realism, pragmatism,
and existentialism, as well as educational philosophies arising from
those major philosophies. These include perennialism and
essentialism in the traditional category, while progressivism and
reconstructionism fall under the modern philosophies. These
educational philosophical approaches are currently used in
classrooms the world over. These educational philosophies focus
heavily on WHAT we should teach, the curriculum aspect.
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
The traditionalist is a perennialist, essentialist or critical humanist
1. Curriculum as a subject-matter content
2. Curriculum as the cumulative tradition of organised knowledge
3. Curriculum as disciplinary knowledge
4. Curriculum as an instructional plan of course of study
5. Curriculum as measured instructional outcomes (products)
technological production model
6. Curriculum as cultural reproduction
Curriculum as a subject-matter curriculum
• The traditionalist: That curriculum is organised as subjects
• The professional educator:
1. Curriculum is designed beyond subjects
2. Curriculum can be correlated
3. Curriculum can be organised as interdisciplinary units of work or as
problems and themes integrating several subjects, broad fields, or
combined fields of study
4. Curriculum as projects and activities beyond given subjects
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
Curriculum as the cumulative tradition of organised knowledge
• Traditionalist: that the organised knowledge of the
cumulative tradition must be impacted to each rising
generation
• To them knowledge is truth and truth is universal
• Education is must therefore be universal
• This conception devalues the dynamic nature of knowledge,
the modern scientific studies and the practical application
of knowledge
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
Curriculum as disciplinary knowledge
• This belief comes from the doctrine of structure-of-the-discipline (Jerome
Bruner)
• That constituent academic disciplines such as in the sciences and
mathematics are each built on a structure that reveals how the knowledge
is related within the discipline
• That the structure of the discipline is embodied by the fundamental ideas,
concepts and generalisations that define the discipline
• The curriculum of a subject is therefore be determined by the most
fundamental understanding that can be achieved of the underlying
principles that give structure to that subject
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
Curriculum as an instructional plan of course of study
• That curriculum is an instructional plan
• That it is a course of study
• That curriculum is discovery or inquiry oriented
• However, the ‘inquiry’ was directed at specialised disciplinary
knowledge to the deliberate exclusion of practical knowledge
geared to the learner’s development and life experience, and to the
wider social situation.
• Again, the curriculum, though considered inquiry based, was more
of ‘teacher proof,’ a contradiction in terms
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
Curriculum as measured instructional outcomes (products): A
technological production model
• That curriculum must be conceived in terms of test results.
• Curriculum is seen as a quantitatively measured outcomes of instruction
• The concept originated from the concept of the application of industrial
‘scientific management’ (industrial plant management) to education
• Measure the curriculum according to input (the entering pupil) and the
output (the departing pupil)
• This conception of curriculum forces teachers to teach to the test.
TRADITIONALIST THEORY (PHLOSOPHY )OF
CURRICUM
Curriculum as cultural reproduction
• Cultural reproduction is basically a selection
of studies or subject matters designed to
maintain the existing social order
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
• There was a drastic change in the conception of curriculum –
the early part of 20th century
• Reasons:
1. Changes in the conception of ‘scientific’ knowledge
2. Changes in the knowledge of learning process as a result of
the child centred movement
3. The need to link formal school studies with the life of the
learner and the changing demands of the larger social
scene
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
On the basis of the above, progressivists conceived:
• Curriculum as knowledge selection/organisation from the experience
of the culture
• Curriculum as modes of thought
• Curriculum as experience
• Curriculum as guided learning experience
• Curriculum as guided living: The planned learning environment in
action
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
Curriculum as knowledge selection/organisation from the experience
of the culture
• This is more like the curriculum as a cumulative tradition of
knowledge
• However, this concept looks at the total culture of a society.
• The importance of transferring and reconstructing the cultural
experience through the curriculum
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM

Curriculum as modes of thought

• The focus of ‘curriculum as modes of thought’ is
reflective thinking
• That learning is learning to think
• That curriculum elements are unified through reflective
thinking
• Reflective thinking is about problem solving through
systematic steps
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
Curriculum as experience
• That the curriculum serves to develop the child’s present
experience to a richer maturity
• That the scheme of a curriculum must take account of the
adaptation of studies to the needs of existing community
life
• It must select with the intention of improving the life we
live in common so that the future shall be better than the
past.
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
Curriculum as guided learning experience
• Than the school as a learning-living environment is very
crucial
• That curriculum should embody all the learning
experiences provided the learner under the guidance of
the school
• That the curriculum should be seen as the total
experience with which the school deals in educating
young people
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM
The curriculum as guided living: The planned
learning environment in action
• This conception of curriculum is vocationally
inclined
• That the curriculum should be the very stream of
dynamic activities that constitute the life of
young people and their elders
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY OF
CURRICULUM

Progressivists education seeks to promote

democratic schooling as well as social living.
The other major emphasis is on a child or
learner centred curriculum. The curriculum
therefore is based on the learners’ interests,
needs, abilities and aspirations, among other
characteristics of the learners.
PROGRESSIVIST THEORY (PHILOSOPHY) OF
CURRICULUM
Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the
teaching/learning process, namely:-
• Teacher – pupil planning of curriculum activities
• Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction
• Learner-centred teaching and learning methodology
• Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests
and concerns of the learner
• Non – formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas
like games, related hobbies and other co-curricular areas.
Models of Curriculum Design
(Development)
• A model is a representation or a replica of something
in abstraction.
• A model, in terms of curriculum, is the representation
of the elements or components of the curriculum.
• A model of curriculum design is, therefore, the
statement in abstraction the components that a
curriculum designer should consider in the
development of a curriculum
Types of Model
1. The Tyler Model or Objective Model or Tyler
Rationale
2. The Wheeler Model or the Cyclic Model
3. The Taba Model
4. The Kerr Model
5. The Tanner and Tanner Model
6. Other models
The Objective Model
• The objective model is called the Tylerian model or
Tyler rationale (1949).
• It was based on the four fundamental questions he
asked in a syllabus he published for a course entitled
Education 260 – Basic Principles of curriculum and
instruction at the University of Chicago.
• The four fundamental questions are:
Objective Model (Cont’d)
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to
attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are
likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be efficiently
organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being
attained?
Objective Model (Cont’d
• The four fundamental questions give the following implied
answers:
1. Statement of objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Organisation of learning experiences
4. Evaluation
• These four fundamental questions have been the basis for
the model of any curriculum design
Objective Model (Cont’d
• Students/learners - for purposes/objectives
• Society - for purposes/objectives
• Subject specialists - for purposes/objectives
• Philosophical screen - for value-laden content
• Psychological screen - for instructional theories
• Selection of learning experiences
• Organisation of learning experiences
• Evaluation
Objective Model (Cont’d
• In his model, Tyler (1949) proposes that each school
should determine its purposes.
• He further recommends that the purposes can be
realised from:
a) The studies of the learners themselves.
b) The studies of the contemporary society
c) The suggestions from subject specialists
Objective Model (Cont’d
• The use of philosophy to screen objectives
• According to him, an educational programme is
not effective if so much is attempted but little is
accomplished.
• Thus, the most important ones that are
consistent, worthwhile and cherished in the
society are selected
Objective Model (Cont’d

• The use of psychology to screen objectives

• It is through psychology that we identify:
conditions intrinsic in learning,
distinguish goals that are feasible;
show certain types of objectives to learn
Objective Model (Cont’d
• The objectives are followed by:
selection,
organisation and
evaluation of learning experiences.
• Tyler’s model, i.e. Tyler rationale, as illustrated
above can be represented diagrammatically as:
Objective Model (Cont’d
Advantages of Tyler model (Marsh, 1992,
p.109)
• It can be applied to any subject & any level of
teaching.
• It provides a set of procedures which are very easy to
follow & which appear to be most logical & rational.
• Its emphasis on ‘student behaviours’ and ‘learning
experiences’ at the time was a breaking new ground.
• Guidelines for evaluation were more comprehensible
during those times
Criticisms against Tyler model
• The Tyler Model of curriculum development has undergone several
criticisms:
1. It is too simple and linear.
2. It is too mechanic or static by leaving evaluation at the end.
3. It lacks continuum because it is not flexible.
4. It lacks interrelatedness.
5. It fails to indicate the criteria used to select the objectives.
6. It does not have the selection & organisation of content.
7. No explicit guidelines are given about why certain objectives should
be chosen over others.
8. Research evidence on teacher thinking & teacher planning indicates
that few teachers use objectives as their initial planning point,
neither do they se a set series of steps.
9. Tyler is only concerned about evaluating intended instructional
objectives.
10. He ignores the unintended learnings which invariably occur.
11.The separation of the four steps tends to under-
estimate the inter-relationships which occur in any
curriculum planning activity
12. The model overemphasises measurable outcomes
both in terms of what is set down as an objective and
what is evaluated.
The Wheeler Model
Aims,
goals &
objectives
Evaluation

Selection
of learning
experience
s
Organisation
& integration
of learning
Selection of
experiences
Content
& content
Features and criticisms of Wheeler model
1. It has five phases
2. It is cyclic
3. It shows interrelatedness
4. It comprises both content and learning experiences
• The model, however, lacks the sources of educational
objectives and the screening standards – Philosophy
and psychology
The Taba Model
• Taba’s main concern was to establish the source of the
educational objectives.
• She suggested that the situation at hand must be
analysed to come by the present conditions and then
compare these conditions with desirable standards or
acceptable norms.
• The gap between the present conditions and the
desirable standards constitute an educational
objective or a learning need
The Taba model (Cont’d)
• A learning need or an educational objective,
according to Taba, is the difference between a
learner’s present conditions in terms of content
and what ought to be the desirable conditions in
terms of content.
• On the basis of these conditions, Taba came out
with the following model:
The Taba model (Cont’d)
Features & criticisms against Taba model
1. It has seven phases.
2. It is simple and linear.
3. It begins with need assessment
4. It indicates where the objectives should be
derived.
5. It leaves evaluation at the end just as Tyler did.
6. It lacks interrelatedness
Features & criticisms of Kerr model
1. It has four phases
2. It shows interrelatedness
3. It shows that each element interacts with three other
elements
4. It is complex indicating that curriculum is complex
5. It shows that evaluation can be done at any level at all
6. It, however, lacks the base from which objectives are
derived
Tanner & Tanner Model
Objectives

Subject Philosophy Methods &

organisation

Evaluation
Tanner & Tanner Model (contn’d)

•Tanner & Tanner model has the same

features as that of Kerr’s but they have
indicated the base from where decisions
about the objectives are derived
•The base is called philosophy
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

•Draw clear distinctions

between Tyler’s model
and Wheeler’s model .