COHEREN

CE AND
COHESION
RELATION
S
•Coherence : a very general
principle of interpretation of
language in context.
•“A reasonable connection
or relation between ideas,
arguments, statements etc”.
(Oxford Advanced Learners,
Dictionary)
•Linguists tend to focus on
cohesion markers
Cohesion:
The various kinds of cohesion had been
outlined by MAK Haliday in his writing on
stylistics and the concept was developed by
Ruqiya Hassan in her university of Edinburgh
doctoral thesis.
1.
« cohesion is no more structural, it is external,
marked by « lexico-grammatical items»»
(Halliday & Hasan 1976)
•Cohesion:
•A close relationship based on grammar or meaning between two parts of
a sentence or a larger piece of writing.
(Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary)
•Meaning: the relations between two or more elements in a text that are
independent of the structure.
For example for a personal pronoun and an antecedent proper name, such
as Aleena …..she.
A semantic relation of this kind may be set up either within a sentence
with the consequence that when it crosses a sentence boundary it has the
effect of making the two sentences cohere with one another.
•Grammar:

•Smaller linguistic units such as words, phrases, And

clauses are joined together through cohesive
devices (conjunctions) to construct a larger unit of
text.
Cohesive devices may take a
number of forms, for example, pronouns, nouns,
conjunctions etc.

For example:
Dr. Ayesha examined the patient. She began by
checking her temperature.
 • The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics
by P.H. Mathews (1997), defines cohesion in
terms of syntactic unit (Sentences).

• A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics by

David Crystal (1997) defines cohesion in terms of
a grammatical unit (words).
 COHESION

Word Phrase/Clause/Sentence Discourse

Fusion Integration Relational markers

 Types of Cohesion

Language is multiple coding system comprising

three levels of coding.

Meaning: The semantic system

Wording: The lexico-grammatical system
Sound/ Writing System: The phonological and
orthographical system
Cohesive relation fit into the over all pattern of language.
Cohesion is expressed partly through Vocabulary and
partly through grammar.

1. Grammatical Cohesion
(i) Reference
(ii) Substitution
(iii) Ellipsis

2. Lexical Cohesion
The distinction between grammatical cohesion and
lexical cohesion is a matter of degree.
Halliday & Hasan's (1976)
Taxonomy of cohesive devices :

“reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction

and lexical cohesion”,

further refined by Martin (1992).

• So we can say that cohesion is a part of text
forming component in the linguistic system.
It links together the elements that are structurally
unrelated through the dependence of on the other
For its interpretation. Without cohesion the
semantic system cannot be effectly activated
at all.
 Tools of Cohesion

1. Reference
2. Substitution
3. Ellipsis
4. Conjunction
5. Lexical Items
1. Reference
• Reference is used to describe the different ways in
Which entities- things, people, events- are refered to
within texts.
• There are range of linguistic features,
Which enables speakers and writers to make such
References, for example pronouns….may refer
to entities already mentioned or about to be
mentioned.
• There are certain terms in any language which
cannot be interpreted semantically in their own
right ratherThey make reference to something else
within the text for theirinterpretation. J
Example of Reference

Doctor Faustus went to Gloucester in a shower of rain

He stepped in puddle right up to his middle
And never went there again

He and There show that information about them is

retrieved elsewhere within the text. It characterizes a
Particular type of cohesion which is called reference.
The relationship of reference is on semantic level.
The reference items must not match the grammatical
Item it refers to.
Reference can be sub-categorize as follow

Reference

Exophoric Endophoric

Anaphoric Cataphor
 1. Exophoric Reference

Grammatical term used to describe a linguistic

feature in a text, which refers to something
out side of that text. Examples are words such
as there, that, or here, when these are not
further elucidated in the text e.g.
“The book is over there”
“For she is a jolly good fellow and so say all of us”.
Here text is not indicating who he is?
 2. Endophoric Reference

Grammatical term used to describe forms of

reference made within any given text to other
elements within the text e.g in the following
sentences:
‘She gave the books, to John. He left the room.
He is an example of endophoric reference,
referring to John.

Endophoric relations are categorized either as

(i) Anaphoric ( Reference back)
(ii) Cataphoric (Reference forward)
 (i) Anaphoric Reference
Grammatical term used to describe a linguistic
feature, which refers to a previously mentioned
element in any given text.
In the case of the following two sentences, for example:
“The water system is failing because of old pipes
and shortage of qualified technicians to repair them.
These are the reasons why change is necessary”.
These has an anaphoric function, referring
back to the reasons given in the preceding part of
the text.
 (ii). Cataphoric Reference
Grammatical term used to describe a linguistic
feature, which refers forward to another element
in any given text. For example in the sentence
‘Here are two examples of fossil fuels: Coal and wood’,
the word here has a cataphoric function.
Example
Child: Why does that one go?
Father: that what?
Child: that one
Father: that one what?
Child: that parrot, that you kept in in the cage.
Types Of Reference

1.Personal Reference (Person )

2. Demonstrative Reference ( Proximity)
3. Comparitive Reference (General/
Particular
Comparison)
 substitution
Substitution is the replacement of one item by
another. Or
Something that you use instead of the thing you
would usually use.
Substitution and Ellipsis
Substitution is the replacement of one item by
another, and ellipsis is the omission of an item.
Ellipsis can be interpreted as that form of
substitution in which the item is replaced by
nothing
Substitution and Reference
The distinction b/w substitution and reference is that
substitution is a relation in the wording rather than in
meaning. It has been emphasized already that the
classification of the cohesive relations into different
types should not be seen as a rigid division into
watertight compartments.
•The principle distinguishing reference from
substitution is reasonably clear.
•It is relationship b/w linguistic items, such as
words and phrases. Whereas reference is a relation
b/w meanings.
•Substitution is a relation within the text. A substitute is a sort of
counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item.
•Ex.(a) My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.
•(b) You think Joan already knows? I think every body does.
•As a general rule, the substitute item has the same
structural function as that for which it substitute.
•In the given example ‘one’ and ‘axe’ are both Head
in the nominal group; and ‘does’ and ‘knows’ are
both Head in the verbal group.
 Types of Substitution

A relation in the wording rather than in the meaning.

Substitution is the grammatical relation.
Different types of substitution are defined
grammatically rather than semantically.
•There are three types of substitution.
•Nominal
•Verbal
•Clausal
 Nominal Substitution
The substitute ‘one/ones’ always functions as Head of a nominal group, and can
substitute only for an item which is itself Head of a nominal group. For example:
I shoot the hippoptamus
With bullets made of platinum
Because if I use leaden ones
His hide is sure to flatten’em.
•Here ‘bullets’ is the Head of a nominal group ‘bullets
made of platinum' and ‘ones' is Head of the nominal
group ‘leaden ones’.
•The two nominal groups need not themselves have
the same function in the clause.
 The meaning of Substitution
one/ones
 It presupposes some noun that is ‘function as Head in
nominal group’.
 It is a substitution counter put in to fill the ‘Had’ slot.
The meaning is ‘the noun to fill this slot will be found in
the preceding text’.
•A substitute is the carrier of some
information which differentiates the
instance in which it occurs from the other
instance to which it relates by cohesion.
 Verbal Substitution
The verbal substitution in English is ‘do’.
This operates as the Head of the verbal group,
in the place that occupied by the lexical verb.
Its position is always final in group.
• Ex: a…..The words did not come the same as they
used to do.
• B. ‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long
words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you do
either.
• The first do in (a) substitutes for come; that in (b)
substitutes for know the meaning of half those
long words
 The meaning of the Verbal substitute
do
 In many ways the verbal substitute is parallel to the nominal substitute
one.
 There are striking parallel b/w the structure of the verbal group and the
nominal group.
 The verbal group has the logical structure consisting of head and
modifier, and an experiential structure in which the lexical verb express
the ‘thing’.
Clausal Substitution
• Another type of substitution in which what is
presupposed is not an element within the clause
but an entire clause.
• In clausal substitution the entire clause is
presupposed, and the contrasting element is
outside the clause.
• Ex. Is there going to be an earthquake?-it says so.
• Ex. Is there going to be an earthquake?-it says so.
• Here the so presupposes the whole of the clause
there going to be an earthquake? And the
contrastive environment is provided by the says
which is outside it.
• In case of the nominal group the ‘thing’ is typically
a person , creature, object whereas in verbal group
it is typically an action, event or relation.
• They are simply sub categories of experiential
phenomena.
Ellipsis

• It is another cohesive device.

• an occasion when words are deliberately left out of
a sentence, though the meaning can still be
understood.
• The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences
where they are unnecessary because they have
already been referred or mentioned.
• A simple conversational example;
• A- where are you going?
• B-to town.
(the full form of B’s reply would be ; I am going to
town).
Ellipsis and Substitution
• Substitution and Ellipsis embody the same
fundamental relation b/w part of a text (a relation
between words or groups or clauses- as distinct
from reference, which is relation b/w meanings).
Types of Ellipsis
• There are three types of ellipsis.
• Nominal ellipsis
• Verbal ellipsis
• Clausal ellipsis
Nominal ellipsis
• It means ellipsis within the nominal group.
• On the logical dimensions the structure is that of a
Head with optional modification, the modifying
element includes some which precede the Head
and some which followed it as premodifier and post
modifier.
• Ex. Those two fast electric trains with pantographs.
• In this example Head is ‘train’.
• Premodifier is formed by ‘those two fast electric’.
• Post modifier by ‘with pantographs.
Verbal Ellipsis
• Verbal ellipsis means the ellipsis within the verbal
group.
• Ex. A. Have you been swimming?
B. yes, I have.
A. what you have been doing?
B. swimming.
• An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more
words from previous verbal group.
• Technically, it is defined as
• A verbal group whose structure does not fully
express in systemic feature.
Clausal Ellipsis
• In clausal ellipsis we look at the ellipsis from
another angle.
• Taking the clause as the point of departure. The
clause in English considered as he expression of the
various speech functions, such as statement,
question, response and so on.
• It has two parts consisting of
• Modal Element
• Propositional Element
• Ex. The Duke was going to plant a row of poplars in
the park.
• The Duke was__ Modal element.
• going to plant a row of poplars in the park__
propositional element.
conjunctions
• A word which joins words, phrases or clauses
together, such as but, and, when, so that, never the
less, or, that and unless etc.
Categories of conjunction
• Conjunctions divided in to four categories;
• Additive
• Adversative
• Causal
• Temporal
 Additive
• It means substance added to another.
Adversative.
• It means contrary to expectations.
Causal.
• These relations expressed by so, thus, hence,
therefore. All these regularly combine with initial
‘and’.

•Temporal.
This relation is expressed in its
simplest form ‘then’.
Lexical Cohesion
Lexical Cohesion, is “phoric”
cohesion that is established
through the structure of the
lexis, or vocabulary, and hence
(like substitution) at the
lexicogrammatical level.
• While reference, ellipsis, and conjunction tend to
link clauses which are near each other in the text,
lexical cohesion tends to link much larger parts of
the text.
• Lexical cohesion is created by Reiteration and
Collocation.
Reiteration
• Reiteration is a form of Lexical cohesion which
involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end
of the scale, the use of a general word to refer back
to a lexical item, at the other end of the scale, and
a number of things in between the use of synonym,
near synonym, or super ordinate.
• Any instance of reiteration may be
• The same word
• A Synonym or Near – Synonym
• A Super ordinate or
• A General word
• For Example
• There’s a boy climbing that tree
• The boy’s going to fall if he does not take care.
• The lad’s going to fall if he does not take care.
• The child’s going to fall if he does not take care.
• The idiot’s going to fall if he does not take care.
• In (a), boy is repeated. In (b), the reiteration
takes the form of a synonym lad. In (c), of the
super ordinate term child, and in (d), of a
general word idiot.
Collocation
• Is the way in which
particular words tend to occur
or belong together.
• For example, you can say Meals will be served outside
on the terrace, weather permitting but not Meals will
be served outside on the terrace, weather allowing.
• Both these sentences seem to mean the same
thing (The will bring us our meals outside if the
weather is good enough) allow and permit have very
similar meanings. But in this combination only
permitting is correct. It collocates with weather and
allowing does not.
 Coherence
According to the definition given in Oxford
advance learners dictionary,
“coherence is a situation in which all the parts
of something fit together well.”
.
• The key to the concept of coherence is not
something which exist in the language, but
something which exists in people. it is people who
make sense of what they read and hear.
• They try to arrive at an interpretation which is in
line with their experience of the way the world is.
Example
• My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car
driven by the police was red. That color does not suit
her. She consists of three letters. However a letter
isn’t as fast as a telephone call.
• It becomes clear from an example like this that the
‘connectedness’ which we experience in our
interpretation of normal texts is not simply based on
connections between the words. There must be
some other factor which leads us to distinguish
connected texts which make sense from those which
do not. this factor is usually described as coherence.
.
• Indeed our ability to make sense of what we read is
probably a small part of that general ability of
making sense of what we perceive or experience in
the world.
• In the last example we kept trying to make the text
fit some situation or experience which would
accommodate all the details.
• To incorporate all those disparate elements in to a
single coherent interpretation we will have to work it
at length.
• We would be involved in process of filling in a lot of
gaps which exist in the text.
.
• We would have to create meaningful connections
which are not actually expressed by the words and
sentences.
• This process is not restricted to trying to
understand ‘odd’ texts alone .it involves
interpretation of all discourse.
Coherence concerns the ways and the
textual world
• Coherence is basically concerned with two things
• 1-the ways in which the things the text is about are
mutually accessible and relevant.
• 2-Coherence concerns the textual world that means
about what a text is.
• Textual world is considered to consist of concepts
and relations.
1-Concepts
• Textual world consists of two things.
• 1-Concepts
• 2-relations
• A concept is defined as a configuration of
knowledge (cognitive content) which can be
recovered or activated with more or less unity and
consistency in the mind.
2-Relations
• Relations can be defined as the links b/w the
concepts which appear together within a textual
world.
• Some of the most common relations can be
classified in terms of two major notions namely
• 1-causality relations
• 2-Time relations
1-causality relations
• Causality relations concern the ways in which one
situation or event affects the conditions for some
other one. These are of major types.
• 1-Cause:
• Example; David hit the ball so hard it flew over the
hedge.
• Here the event of hitting the ball hard has created
the necessary conditions for the event of the ball
flying over the hedge.
2-Enablement
• Example: Black cat lay quietly in the sun when
Thomas crept over and pulled her tail.
• Here a weaker relation obtains b/w the event
consisting of black cat lying quietly in the sun and
the event consisting if Thomas creeping over and
pulling her tail. The former event is sufficient but
not a necessary condition for the later.
3-Reason
• Example: Because I have been writing about text
linguistics all day, I deserve a rest this evening.
• In this case the second event follows as a rational
response to the first, but it is not actually caused or
enabled by it.
4-purpose
• Example: You are reading this to find about text
linguistics.
• In this case although the first case enables the
second ,there is an added dimension in so far as the
second event is , it comes out of the first.
2-Time relations
• Time relations concerns the arrangement of event
in time. In the case of cause ,enablement, and
reason, an earlier event causes enables or provides
the reason for a later one, so that we might say
forward directionality is involved.
• Purpose ,however has backward directionality since
the later event is the purpose for an earlier event.
Conclusion
• In the end we can say that cohesion and coherence
share the same function (that of creating text).
Cohesion is a surface feature we recognize it
immidiately.Coherence may only emerge slowly
specially if cohesive features are rare in text. By
delaying our realization of the coherence of a
passage, writers can make that realization all the
more powerful.