Level 3 Diploma in Engineering -

Electrical and Electronic Engineering

2850-90
Unit 328 Maintenance of electrical
equipment and systems

© Bonny Vocational Centre, 2021

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 Aim
• The unit is concerned with basic electrical theory and
electrical components associated with the maintenance
of electrical equipment. The candidate will understand
the operations necessary for the planning and carrying
out of maintenance in an industrial and commercial
environment

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 • LEARNING OUTCOME 1:

Understand the components and features of

electrical systems

© Bonny Vocational Centre, 2015

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• Aim
At the end of this lesson students should be able to
understand the components and features of electrical
systems
• objective
The learner can:
• explain electrical system components and units in conjunction
with system drawings
• explain the function of electrical components and the way in
which they can be assembled
• identify components and systems to meet required functions

4
Understand The Components And Features Of Electrical
Systems
Electromagnets:
• An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is
produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of
wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic
field which is concentrated in the hole, denoting the center of the
coil. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from
a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic
core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful
• Magnet
• magnetic materials: Those materials which are attracted by a
magnet are magnetic materials. Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt are the
magnetic substances as objects made up of these materials are
attracted by a magnet. Also, magnetic materials can be magnetized
or we can say that magnetic materials can be converted into
magnets
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• Inductor
An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-
terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when
electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an
insulated wire wound into a coil.
• Capacitors,
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is
a passive electronic component with two terminals. The effect of a
capacitor is known as capacitance
• Electrolytic capacitors,
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive
plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through
anodization. This oxide layer acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A
solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte covers the surface of this oxide layer,
serving as the cathode or negative plate of the capacitor.
• Discharge resistors,
In Electronics, Capacitor discharge resistors or Bleeder resistors are
resistors connected in parallel with the output of a high voltage power
supply circuit with the express purpose of discharging the residual
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electric charge stored in the filter capacitors of the power supply
 Semiconductors
Some materials are good conductors of electricity, while others are insulators.
A semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator. Semiconductor materials are often made from germanium and
silicon. These materials, due to their peculiar crystalline structure,may under
certain conditions act as conductors and under other conditions act as
insulators.
• diodes,
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily
in one direction; it has low resistance in one direction, and high resistance in
the other
• thyristor and triac,
The thyristor is a switch. It can be switched on so that current may flow in a
circuit. It can be switched off so that current ceases to flow in a circuit. The
thyristor has no moving parts nor need there be any moving parts to operate
as a switch. It is constructed of four layers of semiconductor material. There
are three terminals connected, two of which are used to switch on the
thyristor and two of which are used to allow the passage of the load current
Triacs are electronic components that are widely used in AC power control
applications. They are able to switch high voltages and high levels of current,
and over both parts of an AC waveform. This makes triac circuits ideal for use
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in a variety of applications where power switching is needed
Full wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor

• Half and full wave rectification

A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of
an AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers
are used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to
construct
Full-wave rectification rectifies the negative component of the input voltage to a
positive voltage, then converts it into DC (pulse current) utilizing a diode bridge
configuration. In contrast, half-wave rectification removes just the negative voltage
component using a single diode before converting to DC
• Heat sinks
A heat sink is a component that increases the heat flow away from a hot device. It
accomplishes this task by increasing the device's working surface area and the
amount of low-temperature fluid that moves across its enlarged surface area.
In a power supply, whether it is a linear power supply or a switch mode power supply
using an AC power source and diode rectifiers, the raw rectified output is normally
smoothed using a reservoir capacitor before being applied to any regulators or other
similar electronic circuitry.
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Smoothing circuits
An electronic filtering circuit in a DC power supply that removes the ripples
from AC power
Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are ideal for for acting as smoothing
capacitors as many electrolytics are able to provide a sufficiently high
capacitance and withstand the level of ripple current needed to smooth the
waveform.
Essentially the smoothing circuit fills in the major dips in the raw rectified
waveform so that the linear regulator or switch mode power supply circuitry can
operate correctly. They change the waveform from being one that changes from
zero to the peak voltage over the course of the cycle of the incoming power
waveform and change it to one where the changes are very much less.
Essentially they smooth the waveform out, and this gives rise to the name.
As smoothing capacitors are used in both linear regulated power supplies and
switch mode power supplies, they form an essential part of many of these
electronic circuits.
Full wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor

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 Single thyristor circuits
• There are many applications where an SCR circuit is required to
control the operation of a DC load. This may be used for DC motors,
lamps or any other load requiring switching.
• The basic SCR circuit given below is able to control the power to the
load using a small switch to initiate the application of power to the load

Initially with S1 closed and S2 open, no current will flow. Only when S2 is
closed and it triggers the gate by causing gate current to flow, will the
SCR circuit turn on and current flow in the load.
.
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Current will continue to flow until the anode circuit is interrupted. This can be
done using S1. An alternative method is to place the switch S1 across the
SCR and by momentarily closing it, the voltage across the SCR will disappear
and the SCR will stop conducting.
However, in DC applications it can be turned ON only once and will remain
ON forever until dc current falls below holding current. In this sense there is
very little control over a thyristor when it comes to use it to switch OFF a DC
current.
Basic AC thyristor / SCR circuit
When AC is used with an thyristor circuit, a few changes need to be made as
seen below.
The reason for this arises because the AC power reverses polarity over the
course of the cycle. This means that the SCR will become be reverse-biased,
effectively reducing the anode voltage to zero causing it to turn OFF during
one half of each cycle. As a result there is no need to have an off switch as
this is achieved as part of the use of an AC supply.
The operation of the circuit is slightly different to that of the DC SCR circuit.
When the switch is turned on, the circuit will need to wait until there is
sufficient anode voltage available as the AC waveform progresses along its
course. Also the SCR circuit will need to wait until the voltage within the gate
section of the circuit can provide sufficient current to trigger the SCR. For this11
the switch has to be on its closed position
Once triggered the SCR will remain in its conducting state over the positive
half of the cycle. As the voltage falls, there will come a point where the anode
cathode voltage is insufficient to support conduction. At this point the SCR will
stop conducting.
Then over the negative half of the cycle, the SCR will not conduct. Only when
the next positive half of the cycle returns will the process repeat.
As a result this circuit will only conduct when the gate switch is in its closed
position.
One of the issues with using an SCR circuit of this nature is that it cannot
supply more than 50% power to the load, because it does not conduct during
the negative half of the AC cycle because the SCR is reverse biased

One way is to include a single thyristor within a diode bridge rectifier circuit
which converts AC to a unidirectional current through the thyristor while the
more common method is to use two thyristors connected in inverse parallel. 12
 transformer
Transformer, device that transfers electric energy from one
alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either
increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage. In
other word, A Transformer is a static electrical machine which
transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other circuit at the
constant frequency, but the voltage level can be altered that means
voltage can be increased or decreased according to the requirement
Transformers are employed for widely varying purposes; e.g., to
reduce the voltage of conventional power circuits to operate low-
voltage devices, such as doorbells and toy electric trains, and to raise
the voltage from electric generators so that electric power can be
transmitted over long distances.
Transformers change voltage through electromagnetic induction; i.e.,
as the magnetic lines of force (flux lines) build up and collapse with
the changes in current passing through the primary coil, current is
induced in another coil, called the secondary. The secondary voltage
is calculated by multiplying the primary voltage by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the
primary coil, a quantity called the turns ratio.
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14
Air-core transformers are designed to transfer radio-
frequency currents—i.e., the currents used for radio
transmission; they consist of two or more coils wound
around a solid insulating substance or on an insulating coil
form. Iron-core transformers serve analogous functions in
the audio-frequency range.
Impedance-matching transformers are used to match the
impedance of a source and that of its load, for most
efficient transfer of energy. Isolation transformers are
usually employed for reasons of safety to isolate a piece of
equipment from the source of power

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• Components and systems containment systems
• Cable Containment is an important part of installing a network's
infrastructure. The purpose of containment can be to support the cables
en route, to make subsequent management of cables easier, to provide
isolation of power and data cabling and also to make the installation
aesthetically pleasing. cable ladders, and cable baskets are used to
support a cable throughout the cabling route and conduits and trunking
are used in the final presentation
• Some of the containments solutions we use are cable ladders, trays,
trunking and conduit and these installations can come in a range of
shapes, grades and sizes to suit your power distribution system.
Busbar system
• Busbars are metal bars used to carry large amounts of current. Often
made of copper or aluminum, every home electrical panel has busbars
to distribute ac power to the rows of circuit breakers

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• Underfloor ducting,
Under floor path which ‘are used for cables lying is known duct in large
buildings, stores and offices, where wiring scheme is very difficult,
because the whole building is constructed with concrete and iron.
Therefore, for these places under floor ducting system is introduced

• Rising Mains
The phrase “rising electrical mains” refers to the main electrical power
cables that are installed in a multi-story commercial building. Typically
the main power supply cables will come into the building underground
and will be accessible in the building through a specially built raceway,
access duct or electrical room. At each floor, there will typically be a tap-
off to supply power to each floor. The rising mains will run the entire
height of the building 17
Steel Wire Armoured (Swa) And Mineral Insulated Copper Cable
(Micc)
In electrical power distribution, armoured cable usually means steel
wire armoured cable (SWA) which is a hard-wearing power cable
designed for the supply of mains electricity while MICC cables have
copper conductors, a solid copper sheath and are usually insulated
using magnesium oxide. The features of the cable make them more
resistant to fires than plastic insulated cables due to the lack of organic
material

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•
Circuit Breakers Switches
• A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an
overload
• Fuses
• A fuse is an electrical protective device built around a conductive strip that
is designed to melt and separate in the event of excessive current.
• isolators
• An isolator is a mechanical switching device that, in the open position,
allows for isolation of the input and output of a device. An isolator differs
from a switch in that it is intended to be opened when the circuit is not
carrying current.
• Supply systems
An electrical supply system has three main components, the generating
stations, the transmission lines and distribution systems
•

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•
Earthing Arrangements
In a TT (French: terre-terre) earthing system, the protective earth connection for
the consumer is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes referred to as the
Terra-Firma connection) and there is another independently installed at the
generator
TN−S
• PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the
power source
TN−C−S
• Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split
up into separate PE and N lines
lightning protection
• A lightning protection system includes a network of air terminals (interceptor),
bonding conductors, and ground electrodes designed to provide a low
impedance path to ground for potential strikes. Lightning protection systems
are used to prevent lightning strike damage to structures

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• No-volt releases,
• The motor controllers for large electric motors normally incorporate
a type of circuit breaker known as a no-volt release. If the power
fails, the circuit breaker opens and the motor will not restart when
the power is restored. The circuit breaker must be reset before the
motor can be started again
• residual current devices
• An RCD, or residual current device, is a life-saving device which is
designed to prevent you from getting a fatal electric shock if you
touch something live, such as a bare wire. It can also provide some
protection against electrical fires
• D.C machines ratings
• The ratings of a DC generator are the parameters like voltage,
current, speed, and power which are the specifications of the
machine that defines the capacity of it or the norms it is to be
operated. A machine can give its maximum efficiency and life only
when it is operated under recommend ratings

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• insulation and enclosures
An electrical enclosure is a cabinet for electrical or electronic
equipment to mount switches, knobs and displays and to prevent
electrical shock to equipment users and protect the contents from the
environment. The enclosure is the only part of the equipment which is
seen by users while insulator is material that is used to stop the
passage of electricity, heat, or sound from one conductor to another.
• d.c. generators excitation and voltage control.
The output voltage of a generator is normally controlled by
controlling the current in the field of the generator, the speed being
constant for a set frequency. Various excitation systems are possible
and all usually include some system of sensing and controlling the
generator output voltage
• There are three methods of excitation, and thus three main types of
DC generators:
• Permanent Magnet DC Generators – Field coils excited by
permanent magnets
• Separately Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by some
external source
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• Self Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by the generator
itself.
• Self-excited DC generators can further be classified depending on
the position of their field coils. The three types of self-excited DC
generators are:
Series Wound Generators
Shunt Wound Generators
Compound Wound Generators

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• Separately Excited DC Motor

• As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the

supply is given separately to the field and armature windings.
• Permanent Magnet DC Motor

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• The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC
motor) consists of an armature winding as in case of an usual
motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings.
• Self Excited DC Motor
• In case of self excited DC motor, the field winding is connected
either in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to
the armature winding. Based on this, self excited DC Motors can
be classified as:
• Shunt wound DC motor
• Series wound DC motor
• Compound wound DC motor
• Let’s now go into the details of these types of self excited DC
motor.

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• In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt
wound self excited DC motor, the field windings are exposed to the
entire terminal voltage as they are connected in parallel to the
armature winding as shown in the figure below.
• To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets
consider the basic voltage equation given by,

[Where, E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply voltage, back emf, armature current
and armature resistance respectively]

• [since back emf increases with flux φ and angular speed ωω]
• Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

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• Series Wound DC Motor
• In case of a series wound self excited DC motor or simply
series wound DC motor, the entire armature current flows
through the field winding as its connected in series to the
armature winding. The series wound self excited DC motor is
• diagrammatically represented below for clear understanding.

• Now to determine the torque speed characteristic of these

types of DC motor, lets get to the torque speed equation.
• From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage
equation gets modified to

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• Where as back emf remains Eb = kaφω
• Neglecting saturation we get

Compound Wound DC Motor

• The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by
combining the operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC
motor. The compound wound self excited DC motor or simply compound wound
DC motor essentially contains the field winding connected both in series and in
parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure below:

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The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types
depending on the nature of compounding.
• Cumulative Compound DC Motor
When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main
field connected in series to the armature winding then its called cumulative
compound DC motor.

• Differential Compound DC Motor

• In case of a differentially compounded self excited DC motor i.e.
differential compound DC motor, the arrangement of shunt and series
winding is such that the field flux produced by the shunt field winding
diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.

• The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and
hence does not find much of a practical application.
• The compounding characteristic of the self excited DC motor is shown in
the figure below. 29
Both the cumulative compound and differential compound DC motor
can either be of short shunt or long shunt type depending on the nature
of arrangement.
• Short Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and
not the series field winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or
more specifically short shunt type compound wound DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a short shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram
below.

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• Long Shunt DC Motor
• If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature
winding and the series field winding then it’s known as
long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply
long shunt DC motor.The circuit diagram of a long shunt
DC motor is shown in the diagram below.
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• Alternating Current Machines
• an electrical machine that functions as (1) a generator used to
produce alternating current, or (2) a motor that converts electrical
energy into mechanical work, or (3) a converter that changes the
voltage or frequency of an electric current. AC machines are
classified as synchronous or asynchronous
construction-cylindrical and salient pole,

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• The salient pole type structure has the following special
features,
• They have a large diameter and short axial length.
• The pole shoes cover about ⅔ of the pole pitch.
• Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
• These are employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines
• The non-salient pole type structure has the following special
features,
• They are of small diameter and of very long axial length to
reduce the peripheral velocity
• This type of construction offers fewer windage losses
• High speeds are obtained i.e., 1500 to 3000 rpm.
• Better in dynamic balancing and quiter in operation.
• This type of construction is mechanically very strong
compared to the salient pole type.

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• Power factor correction equipment,
Power Factor Correction (PFC) equipment is a technology which when installed allows the
consumer to reduce their electricity bill by maintaining the level of reactive power consumption. If a
sites Power Factor falls below a predetermined figure then the electricity company adds reactive
power charges to your bill example is capacitor, synchronised motor
• single phase motors
this is the type of motor that run only on single phase
• series universal
The universal motor is a type of electric motor that can operate on either AC or DC power and
uses an electromagnet as its stator to create its magnetic field. It is a commutated series-wound
motor where the stator's field coils are connected in series with the rotor windings through a
commutator
• split phase induction start,
Split Phase Induction Motor
The Split Phase Motor is also known as a Resistance Start Motor. It has a single cage rotor, and
its stator has two windings known as main winding and starting winding. Both the windings are
displaced 90 degrees in space. The main winding has very low resistance and a high inductive
reactance whereas the starting winding has high resistance and low inductive reactance. The
Connection Diagram of the motor is shown below.

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• Split Phase Induction Motor
• Permanent-Split Capacitor Motor
• The single coil of a single-phase induction motor does
not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a pulsating field
reaching maximum intensity at 0° and 180° electrical.
• One way to solve the single phase problem is to build a
2-phase motor, deriving 2-phase power from single
phase. This requires a motor with two windings spaced
apart 90° electrical, fed with two phases of current
displaced 90° in time. This is called a permanent-split
capacitor motor.

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• A resistor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The current in the two
windings is not equal as a result the rotating field is not uniform. Hence, the
starting torque is small, of the order of 1.5 to 2 times of the started running
torque. At the starting of the motor both the windings are connected in parallel.
• As soon as the motor reaches the speed of about 70 to 80 % of the synchronous
speed the starting winding is disconnected automatically from the supply mains.
If the motors are rated about 100 Watt or more, a centrifugal switch is used to
disconnect the starting winding and for the smaller rating motors relay is used for
the disconnecting of the winding.
• A relay is connected in series with the main winding. At the starting, the heavy
current flows in the circuit, and the contact of the relay gets closed. Thus, the
starting winding is in the circuit, and as the motor attains the predetermined
speed, the current in the relay starts decreasing. Therefore, the relay opens and
disconnects the auxiliary winding from the supply, making the motor runs on the
main winding only

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• Capacitor Start Induction Motor
• A Capacitor Start Motors are a single phase Induction Motor
that employs a capacitor in the auxiliary winding circuit to
produce a greater phase difference between the current in the
main and the auxiliary windings. The name capacitor starts
itself shows that the motor uses a capacitor for the purpose of
the starting. The figure below shows the connection diagram of
a Capacitor Start Motor. The capacitor start motor has a cage
rotor and has two windings on the stator. They are known as
the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding. The
two windings are placed 90 degrees apart. A capacitor CS is
connected in series with the starting winding. A centrifugal
switch SC is also connected in the circuit

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• The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor has a cage rotor, and
its stator has two windings known as Main and Auxiliary Windings.
The two windings are displaced 90 degrees in space. There are two
capacitors in this method one is used at the time of the starting and
is known as starting capacitor. The other one is used for continuous
running of the motor and is known as RUN capacitor.
• So this motor is named as Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor.
This motor is also known as Two Value Capacitor Motor. Connection
diagram of the Two valve Capacitor Motor is shown below

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• There are two capacitors in this motor represented by CS and CR. At the starting,
the two capacitors are connected in parallel. The Capacitor Cs is the Starting
capacitor is short time rated. It is almost electrolytic. A large amount of current id
required to obtain the starting torque. Therefore, the value of the capacitive
reactance X should be low in the starting winding. Since, XA = 1/2πfCA, the value
of the starting capacitor should be large. The rated line current is smaller than
the starting current at the normal operating condition of the motor. Hence, the
value of the capacitive reactance should be large. Since, XR = 1/2πfCR, the value
of the run capacitor should be smallAs the motor reaches the synchronous
speed, the starting capacitor Cs is disconnected from the circuit by a centrifugal
switch Sc. The capacitor CR is connected permanently in the circuit and thus it is
known as RUN Capacitor. The run capacitor is long time rated and is made of oil
filled paper. The START capacitor is automatically removed from the circuit by a
centrifugal switch once the motor starts.
• If you remove the RUN capacitor after the motor starts running, it will keep
running, but it will have less torque. So if it has the full rated load, it may slow
down or stall.
•

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 Motor Starters And Motor Speed Controllers Test Equipment,

A motor starter is an electrical device that is used to start & stop a motor safely.
Similar to a relay, the motor starter switches the power ON/OFF & unlike a relay, it
also provides a low voltage & overcurrent protection.
• The main function of a motor starter is;
• To safely start a motor
• To safely stop a motor
• To reverse the direction of a motor
• To protect the motor from low voltage & overcurrent.
Type of Motor Starters:
We will discuss the following types of motors and their starting methods based on
the above motor starting methods
• Direct Online Starter (DOL)
• Stator Resistance starter
• Rotor Resistance or Slip Ring Motor Starter
• Autotransformer Starter
• Star Delta Starter
• Soft Starter
• Variable frequency drive (VFD)
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The motor starters have many types but mainly
they are classified into two types.
Manual Starter. Manual motor starters, also known as motor protection
circuit breakers (MPCBs) or manual motor protectors (MMPs is a type of
starter operates manually and does not require any experience. A push-
button is used to turn OFF & ON the motor connected with it. The
mechanism behind the button includes a mechanical switch that breaks
or makes the circuit to stop or start the motor.
They also provide overload protection. However, these starters do not
have LVP (low voltage protection) i.e. it does not break the circuit upon
power failure. It can be dangerous for some applications because the
motor restarts when the power is restored. Thus they are used for a low
power motor. Direct On-Line (DOL) starter is a manual starter that
provides overload protection.

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 Magnetic Starter

Magnetic starters are the most common type of starter & they are
mostly used for high power AC motors. These starters operate
electromagnetically like a relay that breaks or makes the contacts
using magnetism.
It provides a lower & safer voltage for starting & also includes
protection against low voltage & overcurrent. During the power
failure, the magnetic starter automatically breaks the circuit. Unlike
manual starters, it includes automatic & remote operation that
excludes the operator.
The magnetic starter consists of two circuits;
Power circuit; this circuit is responsible for supplying power to the
motor. It consists of electrical contacts that turn ON/OFF the power
supplied from the supply line to the motor through overload relay.
Control circuit; this circuit controls the contacts of the power circuit
to either make or break the power supply to the motor. The
electromagnetic coil energizes or de-energizes to pull or push the
electrical contacts. Thus providing a remote control for the magnetic42
starter.
Direct Online (DOL) Starter
DOL aka Direct Online Starter is the simplest form of motor starter that connects the motor
directly to the power supply. It consists of a magnetic contactor that connects the motor
with a supply line & an overload relay for protection against overcurrent. There is no
voltage reduction for safe starting a motor. Therefore the motor used with such starters
has below 5 hp rating. It has two simple push buttons that start & stop the motor. Pressing
the start button energizes the coil that pulls the contactors together to close the circuit.
And pressing the stop button de-energizes the contactor’s coil & pushes its contacts apart
thus breaking the circuit. The switch used for turning ON/OFF the power supply can be of
any type such as rotary, level, float, etc
Although, this starter does not provide safe starting voltage the overload relay provides
protection against overheating & overcurrent. The overload relay has normally closed
contacts that energize the contactor’s coil. When the relay trips, the contactor’s coil de-
energize and break the circuit.
• Advantages of DOL Motor Starter
• it has a very simple & cost-effective design.
• It is very easy to understand & operate.
• it provides high starting torque due to the high starting current

43
Direct online motor starter
(DOL)

44
• Disadvantages of DOL Motor Starter
• The high inrush current can damage the windings
• The high inrush current causes voltage dip in the power line.
• It is not suitable for heavy motors
• It can decrease the lifespan of a motor
• Stator Resistance starter
Stator resistance starter uses the RVS (reduced voltage starter)
technique to start a motor. External resistance is added in series with
each phase of a 3 phase induction motor’s stator. The resistor’s job is
to reduce the line voltage (subsequently reducing the initial current)
applied to the stator. Initially, the variable resistor is kept at maximum
position offering maximum resistance. Therefore the voltage across the
motor is minimum (in safe level) due to the voltage drop across the
resistor. The low stator voltage limits the starting inrush current that can
damage the motor windings. As the motor picks up the speed, the
resistance is reduced & the stator phase is directly connected to the
power lines.As the current is directly proportional to the voltage &
torque varies to the square of the current, a 2 times decrease in the
voltage decreases the torque by 4 times. Thus the starting torque using
such a starter is very low & needs to be maintained 45
• Advantages of stator resistance motor starter
• It provides flexibility in starting characteristics.
• The variable voltage supply allows smooth acceleration
• It can be connected to both star or delta connected motor.
• Disadvantages of stator resistance motor starter
• The resistors dissipate the power
• The starting torque is very low due to voltage reduction
• The resistors are quite expensive for large motors.
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• Advantages of stator resistance motor starter
• It provides flexibility in starting characteristics.
• The variable voltage supply allows smooth acceleration
• It can be connected to both star or delta connected motor.
• Disadvantages of stator resistance motor starter
• The resistors dissipate the power
• The starting torque is very low due to voltage reduction
• The resistors are quite expensive for large motors.

Rotor Resistance or Slip Ring Motor Starter

• This type of motor starter works on a full voltage motor starting
technique. It works only on a slip ring induction motor that is why it is
also known as a slip ring motor starter.
• External resistances are connected with the rotor in star combination
through the slip ring. These resistors limit the rotor current & increase
the torque. This, in turn, reduces the starting stator current. It also
helps in improving the power factor
• The resistors are only used during the starting of the motor & it is
removed once the motor picks up its rated speed 47
Advantages of Rotor Resistance Motor Starter
• It provides a low starting current using full voltage.
• Due to high starting torque, the motor can be started under load
• This method improves the power factor.
• It provides a wide range of speed control
Disadvantages of Rotor Resistance Motor Starter
• It only works on slip ring induction motor
• The rotor is expensive & heavier.
Autotransformer Starter
• Such type of motor starters uses an autotransformer as a step-down
transformer to reduce the voltage applied to the stator during the starting
stage. It can be connected to both star & delta connected motors.
48
• The autotransformer’s secondary is connected with each phase of
the motor. The multiple tapings of autotransformer provide a fraction
of the rated voltage. During starting, the relay is at the start position
i.e. the tap point providing a reduced voltage for the startup. The
relay switches between the tap points to increase the voltage with
the speed of the motor. At last, it connects it with the full rated
voltage.
• As compared to other voltage reduction techniques, it offers high
voltage for a specific starting current. It helps in providing a better
starting torque.

49
• Advantages of Autotransformer Starter
• It provides a better starting torque.
• It is used for starting large motors with a significant load.
• It also offers manual speed control.
• It also offers flexibility in starting characteristics.
• Disadvantages of Autotransformer Starter
• Due to large size of the autotransformer, such a starter takes too much
space.
• The circuit is complex & relatively expensive than other starters.

Star Delta Starter

• This is another common starting method used in industries for large
motors. The windings of 3 phase induction motor are switched between
star and delta connection to start the motor.
• To start the induction motor, it is connected in star using a triple pole
double throw relay. The phase voltage in star connection is reduced by
the factor 1/√3 & it reduces the starting current as well as the starting
torque by 1/3 of the normal rated value.
• When the motor accelerates, a timer relay switches the star connection of
the stator windings into the delta connection, allowing the full voltage
across each winding. The motor runs at rated speed. 50
Advantages of Star Delta Starter
• Its design is simple & cheap
• It does not require maintenance
• Provide a low surge current.
• It is used for starting large induction motors.
• It is best for long acceleration time.
Disadvantages of Star Delta Starter
• It works on delta connected motor
• There are more wire connections.
• It offers low starting torque which cannot be maintained.
• There is very limited flexibility is starting characteristics.
• There is a mechanical jerk while switching from star to delta.

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• Soft Starter
• The soft starter also uses the voltage reduction technique. It uses
the semiconductor switches like TRIAC to control the voltage as well
as the starting current supplied to the induction motor.
• A phase-controlled TRIAC is used to provide variable voltage. The
voltage is varied by varying the conduction angle or firing angle of
the TRIAC. The conduction angle is kept at minimum to provide
reduced voltage. The voltage is increased gradually by increasing
the conduction angle. At maximum conduction angle, the full line
voltage is applied to the induction motor & it runs at rated speed.
• It provides a gradual & smooth increase in the starting voltage,
current as well as the torque. Thus there is no mechanical jerk &
provide a smooth operation that increases the life span of the
machine.

52
• Advantages of Soft Starter
It provides better control over starting current & voltage
It offers smooth acceleration, thus no jerks.
It reduces the power surges in the system.
Extends the life span of the system
Provide better efficiency & lack the need for maintenance
Its size is small
• Disadvantages of Soft Starter
It is relatively expensive

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

• Just like the soft starter, a Variable frequency drive (VFD) can vary the voltage
as well as the frequency of the supplying current. It is mainly used for
controlling the speed of the induction motor as it depends on the supply
frequency.
• The AC from the supply line is converted into DC using rectifiers. The pure DC
is converted into AC with adjustable frequency & voltage using pulse width
modulation technique through power transistor like IGBTs.
• It provides full control over the motor speed from 0 to rated speed. The speed
adjust option with the variable voltage provides a better starting current &
acceleration. There is energy dissipation in the form of heat
53
• Advantages of Variable Frequency Drive
• It provides a better and smooth acceleration for large motor
• It offers full speed control with smooth acceleration & deceleration.
• It increases the life span due to the absence of electrical & mechanical
stress
• It offers forward & reverse operation of a motor
• Disadvantages of Variable Frequency Drive
• It is relatively expensive unless speed control is necessary
• There is heat dissipation
• VFDs create harmonics in the electric lines which can affect electronic
equipment & power factor.
54
insulation resistance testers
• An insulation tester is an ohmmeter that measures the electrical
resistance of insulating components
low resistance ohmmeters
• the low-resistance ohmmeter is used for making high-precision
resistance measurements below 1 ohm. Low-Resistance
ohmmeters produce low voltage DC currents via battery power
with outputs of up to 100A
wattmeters,
• The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power
(or the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit.
Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of utility
frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for
radio frequency measurements.
55
• earth loop impedance and prospective short circuit testers
• earth loop impedance tester
• The main reason for earth loop impedance testing – which is often
simply called loop testing – is to verify that, if a fault occurs in an
electrical installation, sufficient current will flow to operate the fuse
or circuit breaker protecting the faulty circuit within a predetermined
time. The objective is to make sure that the circuit is disconnected
fast enough to prevent overheating and possibly a fire.
• The regulations require two loop impedances to be recorded. The
first is Ze, the external fault loop impedance, which is typically
measured at the distribution board or consumer unit where the
supply enters the building. The second is Zs, the total system fault
loop impedance, which has to be measured separately for each
circuit at the location electrically furthest from the point of supply.

56
• prospective short circuit testers
• Prospective Short Circuit (PSC) and Prospective Fault Current (PFC) are
both designed to calculate the maximum current that will flow within a fault
loop path during the event of an electrical fault as required by regulations.
• The Prospective Short Circuit Current is the maximum current that could flow
between Line and Neutral conductors on a single phase supply or between
Line conductors on a three phase supply. A PSC test calculates the current
that will flow in the event of a short circuit fault between the live conductors.
That is, Line and Neutral on a single phase installation or Line to Line/ Line to
Neutral on a three phase installation. A PFC test
calculates the maximum current that will flow in the event of an earth fault; i.e.,
Line to Earth.
• The test result can be determined by calculation, ascertained by enquiry to the
relevant electricity board, or measured using a Loop Tester. If you are using a
Loop Tester, you would measure both PSC and PFC values and record the
highest value. Due to the nature of different supply types, you would expect to
find a PSC value higher than a PFC value on both TT and TN-S systems,
however on a TNC-S system both the PFC and PSC value should be identical
• tachometers and stroboscopes.
• Tachometers and stroboscopes belong to a class of instruments which
measure the rotational speed of a shaft or disc such as those found in motors,
conveyors, and other machinery. Stroboscopes have the added ability to
serve as an inspection device for rotational machinery while in motion 57
 BE ABLE TO PLAN AND PREPARE FOR THE MAINTENANCE OPERATION

Evaluate The Extent Of Work To Be Carried Out

To evaluate the extent of work is a process that
critically examines a extend of work to be carried out,
the scope of the work
• Area,
• Safety requirements,
• Equipment,
• Barriers and enclosures,
• Notification of personnel and other workers,
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
58
 Describe The Current Legislation And Codes Of Practice Relating
To Electrical Equipment And Systems
• Electricity at Work Regulations
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (EAW) aim to prevent the risk of injury
from electrical systems and equipment.
• The main hazards associated with electricity are:
• electric shock, which kills many people at work and in the home every year
• electric burns, particularly since they tend to be deep into the body — often
a small burn on the surface of the skin belies a deep, serious, internal burn
• fire
• arcing
• explosion.
The general requirements for safety are given in regulation 4 of the Electricity at
Work Regulations 1989 (EAW). It sets out the need for:
• safe design of electrical systems and equipment
• regular maintenance to ensure safety
• safe systems of work when undertaking tasks on, with or near electrical
systems
• equipment that is suitable for the purpose to which it is to be put
• items of equipment that transform the electrical energy into useful work
59
• Note:
• The definition of “electrical equipment” in the EAW includes the
switchgear and wiring within the building that carries the current to
the point of use, as well as the separate.

• IEE Wiring Regulations

• The IEE Wiring Regulations (BS 7671) are the national standard
to which all domestic and industrial wiring must conform. This
standard lays out the requirement for installation of fixed cabling
within a building to ensure the adherence of safety and proper
practice. It also covers the testing of wiring. emphasizes earthing,
bonding, protection, and circuit design of electrical wirings.
emphasizes earthing, bonding, protection, and circuit design of
electrical wirings
60
• GS38 is a guidance document produced by the Health & Safety
Executive dealing with electrical test equipment. In particular it states
that test leads must satisfy certain criteria in order to comply with GS38
Under GS38 test leads, used to measure or apply voltages over 50Vac
and 100V dc
should have:
 Fused leads
 shrouded connectors
 finger barriers
 identifiable leads
 insulated flexible and robust leads
 minimum of 4mm exposed tip (recommended 2mm, spring loaded

61
• Risk assessment: The definition of a risk assessment is
a systematic process of identifying hazards and
evaluating any associated risks within a workplace, then
implementing reasonable control measures to remove or
reduce them

62
 Method statement

• Method statements are documents that detail exactly how to

carry out work safely. When it comes to ensuring building site
health and safety, method statements are key. The purpose of
method statements is to describe the safety precautions to put in
place to control risks identified in the risk assessment

63
Safe isolation procedure,
•Obtain permission to start work (a Permit may be required in
some situations)
•Identify the source(s) of supply using an approved voltage
indicator or test lamp
•Prove that the approved voltage indicator or test lamp is
functioning correctly
•Isolate the supply(s)
•Secure the isolation
•Prove the system/equipment is DEAD using an approved
voltage indicator or test lamp
•Prove that the approved voltage indicator or test lamp is
functioning correctly
•Put up warning signs to tell other people that the electrical
installation has been isolated
•Once the system/equipment is proved DEAD, work can begin64
 Permit to Work

• Permit-to-work (PTW) refers to management systems used to

ensure that work is done safely and efficiently. These are used in
hazardous industries and involve procedures to request, review,
authorise, document and most importantly, de-conflict tasks to
be carried out by front line workers.
• Permits are effectively a means of communication between site
management, plant supervisors and operators, and those who
carry out the work. Examples of high-risk jobs where a written
permit to work procedure may need to be used include hot work
such as welding, vessel entry, cutting into pipes carrying
hazardous substances, diving in the vicinity of intake openings,
and work that requires electrical or mechanical isolation. It is
also a means of coordinating different work activities to avoid
conflicts
65
66
 Analyse Manufacturers’ Information, Related Work Records, Circuit Diagrams And Other
Necessary Data

• manufacturers data:
Manufacturing Data means all Know-How and Technical Information
relating to the manufacture of the Licensed Molecules or Licensed
Product. Manufacturing Data means all designs, models, plans, electric
and engineering plans and any other related data use to manufacture or
assemble a specific product. In other word, the information that is
required to make the product, such as bills of materials (the
ingredients), the manufacturing process, information about tolerances.
• Catalogues:
• internet,
• component data sheets,
• availability and assemble of materials,
• company stores
• wholesalers and component suppliers

67
 Identify tools and equipment
• Hand and power tools
• A power tool is defined as a machine or device which is powered
by an additional mechanism or source than the human body. The
most common source of power for these tools is an electric motor
base, but there are some which are fueled by gasoline, however;
this source of power is rare and generally applies to garden tools
• Machine/Power Tools
• ​1. Electric drill has an electric motor that drives a chuck. The
chuck has jaws that can be opened and then closed to grip a drill
kit.

68
• Grinding tool can be either bench-mounted or installed on a
pedestal. They may either have a grinding wheel, view wheel, or two
grinding wheels.

Vacuum cleaner is used for cleaning the floor and car interiors after
service.

69
• Hand tools
A tool is a device that can be used to produce an item or accomplish a task, but
that is not consumed in the process.
They include screwdrivers, hammers, pliers, wrenches and pullers. 1.
Screwdrivers are used to drive, or turn screws. The common type has a single flat
blade for driving screws with slotted heads. The other type has the cross slotted
head.

1. Hammers are mostly used tools in the shop. They should be gripped at the end
of the handle.
2. Pliers are specified types of adjustable wrenches. The two legs move on a pivot
so that items of various sizes can be gripped.
3. Wrenches are used to turn screws, nuts and bolts with hexagonal heads.
―Hexagonal‖ means six-sided. A variety of wrenches are used in the shop.
4. Pullers are used to remove gears and hubs from shafts, bushings from blind
holes, and cylinders’ liners from the engine blocks
• Battery operated drill
A cordless drill (or power drill) is an electric drill with rechargeable batteries
and it is the most common item in any garage, construction site, or
workshop. These drills have enough strength to drive screws and drill into thick
planks of wood or wall using a carbide-tip masonry bit

70
• Safety Checks
• Safety checklists are documents used during safety inspections
for the identification of potential hazards. OSHA has provided a
wide range of checklists for the identification of potential hazards in
a variety of industries and applications

71
 Prepare works orders or requisitions
• A work order is a document that provides all the information about
a maintenance task and outlines a process for completing that task.
Work orders can include details on who authorized the job, the
scope, who it's assigned to, and what is expected while an
authoritative or formal demand for something to be done, given,
supplied

72
• Carry Out Inspection
Maintenance inspections can identify minor issues before they turn
into costly repairs. Inspections ensure machines are working
correctly and helps prevent equipment downtime. Just about every
plant or facility must conduct regular inspections as part of its overall
maintenance program. Electrical systems, mechanical systems, and
instrumentation components must be checked and subsequently
serviced. Many inspections must be conducted while a production
line is running or equipment is operating. Inspections cannot
interrupt manufacturing or production processes, and many pieces
of machinery cannot be checked adequately without seeing them in
action.
Inspection: on equipment or systems. e.g. visual inspection of plant,
cables and
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• conduct diagnosis and carry out repairs
• Faults to lighting,
• plant containment and other components.
• Motors and Generators,
• safe dismantling,
• recording of faults,
• install range of electrical systems.
• containment of oils and greases,
• protection and storage of parts,
• wear due to corrosion,
• erosion and pitting,
• worn seals,
• removal and fitting bearings,
• seals,
• springs,
• circlips,
• manufacture and fitting of gaskets,
• bench testing of components ,
• maintenance records

74
• Complete Maintenance Record
• A maintenance report form is one of the main tools used by maintenance personnel to
document maintenance inspections on equipment. The report involves a continuous process
of checking, servicing, and repairing operating equipment to make sure that businesses
operate smoothly without unwanted interruptions.
• To accurately track the records of actions done for quality and safety purposes, you can use a
maintenance report template.
• Here are some benefits of using such a form:
• It helps maintain reliability
This ensures that operating equipment is always made available as needed and in working
condition.
• It helps ensure safety
Regular checkups can prevent unexpected risks to the individuals involved in doing repairs.
• It improves efficiency
The early identification of defects and their immediate repairs can save the company both
money and time in the long run.
• It promotes good recordkeeping
The regular documentation of equipment repair and diagnostics helps you identify broader
trends while supporting investigations in the future.

75
76
• Be able to recommission the system and restore the work area
• Re commission the system and adjust as required to working
parameters
• ReCommissioning is a methodical process of testing an existing
facility's systems and equipment to make sure they are still
functioning according to the original design intent or to make
adjustments to correct any deviation from the original design.
Restore work area to clean and safe condition upon completion of
maintenance
• safety before re-energising,
• check all systems in place and re-set,
• prescribed start up procedures
• electrical, mechanical and pneumatic/hydraulic checks
• Restore work area to clean and safe condition upon completion
of maintenance
• After maintenance work is completed the site must be restored
through proper housekeeping and all tools and temporary
equipment packed-up.
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• Classify hazardous susbstances and state the approved method of disposal
Materials used that are classified as hazardous and those that can be recycled
• These are Hazardous substances
• oils, greases,
• cleaning agents
• solvents
• insulation
• adhesives
• fillers,
• packing
• lagging
Approved method disposal
• Read the labels. On how to dospose
• Schedule a home pick up: Contact your local waste management company to pick up
hazardous waste for disposal
• Find a drop off location: local waste management create a drop off location for waste to be
disposed
• Request a mail-in recycling kit:
• Keep materials in their original packaging.

78
• How to dispose of hazardous waste
• Landfill Disposal
• The oldest and most common form of waste disposal is landfill or
dumpsites. Through this method, waste is collected and then simply
thrown to a dumping site.
• Incineration
• This is the burning of your hazardous waste into an incombustible
residue. Hazardous wastes are placed in enclosed devices and
burned. It is generally used in areas where there is minimal space
for landfills, as this can drastically reduce the volume of waste
• The waste is first detoxified to reduce the release of toxic gases into
the atmosphere. Incineration is an ideal option for waste
minimization and detoxification, although its operating expenses are
high.
• In some states, incineration of hazardous waste is used to produce
steam, which drives turbines to generate electric power. This heat is
recycled for use in the incinerators; therefore, reducing the cost of
waste disposal and energy production. Wastes that have nitrogen,
phosphorous, chlorine, polychlorinated biphenyl, carcinogenic
substances, and heavy metals are burnt in incinerators with
79
pollution control devices
• Dumping at sea
• In this method, hazardous waste is deposited in the deep sea to minimize its impact on groundwater
sources. Some corporations like factories would have direct lines from their manufacturing plants to the
water.
• In the past, waste was dumped without any prior treatment. This was based on the belief that the high
volume of seawater could dilute the hazardous substances in the waste. However, this has proven to
have a harmful effect on the water as millions of tons of hazardous wastes are dumped into the oceans
every year
• Underground Disposal
• Underground disposal is the ideal and economical choice for radioactive waste. This includes the waste
generated from lab experiments, some medical treatments, mining of radioactive ore, and the production
of nuclear fuel. Underground hazardous waste disposal is only done in partially active and inactive
mines, which meet particular technical and geological criteria.
• Improper handling of hazardous waste will put your health at risk and might attract hefty fines from your
local council. The above methods of waste disposal are the better options to get rid of the waste safely.
The waste disposal company you work with can also train your employees on how to handle the waste
before its collection and disposal.

• Nowadays, however, hazardous waste is first treated using different methods before dumping it at sea to
minimize threats to marine life. This method is currently regulated or even banned by environmental
protection agencies around the world to preserve water resources.

80
• Produce a report to record the actions
taken during hand over
• Complete maintenance schedules
• Clear permits to work and sign off
• Diaries
• Materials used
• Record likely future requirements
• Update maintenance schedule
• Hand over to authorised personnel
81