Chapter 4

Reactions in Aqueous Solution

Chapter 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

• 4. 1General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

• 4. 2Precipitation Reactions
• 4. 3Acid-Base Reactions
• 4. 4Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, Oxidation
Numbers
• 4. 5 Concentration of Solutions and Solution
Stoichiometry
• 4. 7 Acid-Base Titrations
 Solutions
• Solutions are Homogeneous Mixtures
– composition may vary from one sample to
another
– appears to be one substance, though really
contains multiple materials
• Most homogeneous materials we encounter
are actually solutions
– e.g. air and lake water
 Components of a Solutions
• Solute is the dissolved substance
– seems to “disappear”
– “takes on the state” of the solvent
• Solvent is the substance solute dissolves in
– does not appear to change state
• When both solute and solvent have the same
state, the solvent is the component present in the
highest percentage
• Solutions in which the solvent is water are
called aqueous solutions
 Common Types of Solution

Solute Solvent
Solution Phase Phase Phase Example
gaseous solutions gas gas air (mostly N2 & O2)
gas liquid soda (CO2 in H2O)
liquid solutions liquid liquid vodka (C2H5OH in H2O)
solid liquid seawater (NaCl in H2O)
solid solutions solid solid brass (Zn in Cu)
 Summary
A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances
The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the smaller
amount(s)
The solvent is the substance present in the larger amount
Identify the solvent and solute in the following

Solution Solvent Solute

Soft drink (l) H2O Sugar, CO2
Air (g) N2 O2, Ar, CH4
Soft Solder (s) Pb Sn aqueous solutions
of KMnO4
6
Will a Substance Dissolve In Water?
• Ions are attracted to polar solvents
– many ionic compounds dissolve in water
• Polar molecules are attracted to polar solvents
– table sugar, ethyl alcohol and glucose all dissolve well
in water
• Nonpolar molecules are attracted to nonpolar
solvents
– -carotene, (C40H56), is not water soluble
• Many molecules have both polar and nonpolar
structures – whether they will dissolve in water
depends on the kind, number and location of polar
and nonpolar structural features in the molecule
 Salt Dissolving in Water

 Hydration is the process in which an ion

 is surrounded by water molecules
H2O arranged in a specific manner.
Solubility of Polar Substances

9
 Properties of Aqueous Solutions
• All solutes that dissolve in water fit into two
categories
– An electrolyte is a substance that, when
dissolved in water, results in a solution that can
conduct electricity.
– A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when
dissolved, results in a solution that does not
conduct electricity.

10
Properties of Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytes Conduct electricity in solution?

Cations (+) and Anions (-)

NaCl (s ) H2O Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity?

No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution

H2O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)
Glucose -- solid Glucose – in water
 Properties of Aqueous Solutions
• An electrolyte when dissolved in water can conduct
electricity.
– Strong electrolytes
– Weak electrolytes

• A non-electrolyte does not conduct electricity

• Can be demonstrated by a conductivity experiment

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

12
Properties of Aqueous Solutions

13
 Electrolytes
Strong Electrolyte – 100% dissociation
H 2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Weak Electrolyte – not completely dissociated

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

 Electrolytes

Ionization of acetic acid

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

A reversible reaction. The reaction can

occur in both directions.

Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte because its

ionization in water is incomplete.

15
You must know the electrolytes from this table
 Solubility
• There is usually a limit to the solubility of one
substance in another
– gases are always soluble in each other
– two liquids that are mutually soluble are said to
be miscible
• alcohol and water are miscible
• oil and water are immiscible
• The maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a given amount of solvent is
called the solubility
17
 Solution Types based on Solubility

• Saturated solutions have the maximum

amount of solute that will dissolve in that
solvent at that temperature
• Unsaturated solutions can dissolve more
solute
• Supersaturated solutions are holding more
solute than they should be able to at that
temperature
– unstable
 Supersaturated Solution

A supersaturated solution has more dissolved solute than

the solvent can hold. When disturbed, all the solute above
the saturation level comes out of solution.
4. 2 Precipitation Reactions

20
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
• Many times, the chemicals we are reacting
together are dissolved in water
– mixtures of a chemical dissolved in water are
called aqueous solutions
• Dissolving the chemicals in water helps them
to react together faster
– the water separates the chemicals into individual
molecules or ions
– the separate, free floating particles come in
contact more frequently so the reaction speeds up
21
Predicting Whether a Reaction Will
Occur in Aqueous Solution
• When chemicals (dissolved in water) are
mixed and one of these 4 things can occur,
the reaction will generally happen
 formation of a solid
 formation of water
 formation of a gas
 transfer of electrons
• These are called “Forces” that drive a
reaction
22
Strong Electrolytes: Fully Dissociated in Solution
• Potassium iodide dissociates in water into
potassium cations and iodide anions
KI(aq)  K+1(aq) + I-1(aq)
K I K+1 I-1

• Copper(II) sulfate dissociates in water into

copper(II) cations and sulfate anions
CuSO4(aq)  Cu+2(aq) + SO4-2(aq)
Cu SO4 Cu+2 SO4-2
23
Strong Electrolytes: Fully Dissociated in Solution

• potassium sulfate dissociates in water into

potassium cations and sulfate anions
K2SO4(aq)  2 K+1(aq) + SO4-2(aq)
K+1
K SO4 K SO4-2
K+1

If polyatomic ion is present - keep them intact.

24
 Precipitation Reactions
• Many reactions are done by
mixing aqueous solutions of
electrolytes together
• When this is done, often a
reaction will take place from the
cations and anions in the two
solutions exchanging
• if the ion exchange results in
forming a compound that is
insoluble in water, it will come
out of solution as a precipitate

25
 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from solution
precipitate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

molecular equation – species exist

as molecules or whole units

PbI2
 Precipitation of Lead Iodide
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

PbI2 Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

27
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature. – you
must remember solubility rules given in this table
 Examples of Insoluble Compounds

CdS PbS Ni(OH)2 Al(OH)3

Sulfides and hydroxides (except Ba2+) are insoluble!

 Practice
Rule: Insoluble compounds and molecular compounds
except acids don’t break apart!!
• Which compounds will dissociate in water? Write their
dissociation products, if any.
• HCl (aq)
• Na2CO3
• Pb(OH)2
• CuBr2
• NaOH
• H2SO4 (aq)
 Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2. Exchange Ions
– (+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
3. Balance Charges of combined ions to get formula of
each product
4. Balance the Equation
– count atoms
5. Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water
– use the Solubility Rules
– if product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate
– if neither product will precipitate, no reaction
31
 Example - When an aqueous solution of sodium
carbonate is added to an aqueous solution of
copper(II) chloride, a white solid forms
1. Write the formulas of the reactants
Na2CO3(aq) + CuCl2(aq) 
2. Determine the ions present when each
reactant dissociates
(Na+ + CO32-) + (Cu+2 + Cl-) 
3. Exchange the Ions
(Na+ + CO32-) + (Cu+2 + Cl-) (Na+ + Cl-) + (Cu+2 + CO32-)

32
 Example - When an aqueous solution of sodium
carbonate is added to an aqueous solution of
copper(II) chloride, a white solid forms
4. Write the formulas of the products
– cross charges and reduce
Na2CO3(aq) + CuCl2(aq) NaCl + CuCO3
5. Balance the Equation
Na2CO3(aq) + CuCl2(aq) NaCl + CuCO3

33
 Example - When an aqueous solution of sodium
carbonate is added to an aqueous solution of
copper(II) chloride, a white solid forms

6. Determine the solubility of each product

NaCl is soluble
CuCO3 is insoluble
7. Write an (s) after the insoluble products and a
(aq) after the soluble products
Na2CO3(aq) + CuCl2(aq) NaCl(aq) + CuCO3(s)

34
 Will there be a precipitate formed?
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq)

PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

NaNO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq)

NaCl (aq) + CaNO3 (aq)

 How to write a molecular equation?
If polyatomic ion is present on both sides, then keep
them intact.

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

AgNO3 (aq) + CaS (aq) Ag2S (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O

Chemical Reactions in Solutions: Description

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

molecular equation – species exist as
molecules or whole units

Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + 2I- PbI2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-

ionic equation – ionic compounds dissolved in

PbI2 water are broken into cations and anions.

Insoluble compounds and molecular

compounds except acids don’t break apart!!
 Chemical Reactions in Solutions: Description
• Equations which describe the chemicals put into the water
and the product molecules are called molecular equations
2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)  2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
• Equations which describe the actual dissolved species are
called ionic equations
– aqueous electrolytes are written as ions
• soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases
– insoluble substances and nonelectrolytes written in molecule form
• solids, liquids and gases are not dissolved, therefore molecule form

2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

38
 Chemical Reactions in Solutions: Description

• Ions that are both reactants and products are called

spectator ions

2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

• An ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

removed is called a net ionic equation

2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)

39
 Writing Net Ionic Equations

• Net ionic equations involve formation of a solid, liquid or gas in the

product:
– formation of a solid

• Ba2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4(s)

– formation of a liquid

• H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(ℓ)

– or formation of a gas.

• H+(aq) + HCO3- (aq) H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

 Summary: Writing Net Ionic Equations
1. Write the balanced molecular equation.
2. Write the ionic equation showing the strong electrolytes
completely dissociated into cations and anions.
3. Cancel the spectator ions on both sides of the ionic equation
4. Check that charges and number of atoms are balanced in the
net ionic equation
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of silver nitrate
with sodium chloride.

AgNO3 (aq) + NaI (aq) AgI (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ag+ + NO3- + Na+ + I- AgI (s) + Na+ + NO3-

Ag+ + I- AgI (s) 41

Summary: Writing Net Ionic Equations

precipitate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

molecular equation

Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + 2I- PbI2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-

ionic equation

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

net ionic equation

Na+ and NO3- are spectator ions – ions which are

cancelled out or are present on both sides of equation
 Practice: Writing Net Ionic Equations
FeCl3 (aq) + 3 NaOH (aq)  Fe(OH)3 (s) + 3 NaCl (aq)
 Chemistry In Action:
An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction

Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO-3 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

CO2 (aq) CO2 (g)

Hard water –
water containing
44
Ca2+ and Mg2+
4. 3 Acid-Base Reactions

45
 Properties of Acids

• Have a sour taste.

– Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid.
– Citrus fruits contain citric acid.

• Cause color changes in plant dyes.

– Color of litmus changes from blue to red

• React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas.

2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

46
 Properties of Acids
• React with carbonates and bicarbonates to
produce carbon dioxide gas

2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

• Aqueous acid solutions conduct

electricity.

HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

47
 Properties of Bases
• Have a bitter taste.
• Feel slippery
– Many soaps contain bases.
• Cause color changes in plant dyes.
– Changes color of red litmus to blue

• Aqueous base solutions conduct

electricity.
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Examples:

Milk of Magnesia?
Mg(OH)2 48
 Arrhenius Acid

• Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces H+ (H3O+) in

water

Hydronium ion, hydrated proton, H3O+ 49

 Arrhenius Base
• Arrhenius base is a substance that produces
OH- in water

• Arrhenius Acid-Base definitions are limited

and apply to only aqueous solutions

50
 Brønsted Acid-Base Concept

• A Brønsted acid is a proton donor

• A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor

base acid acid base

• A Brønsted acid must contain at least one

ionizable proton!
51
 Types of Acids
Monoprotic acids
HCl H+ + Cl- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HNO3 H+ + NO3- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Diprotic acids
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HSO4- H+ + SO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Triprotic acids
H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
H2PO4- H+ + HPO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
HPO42- H+ + PO43- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
52
 Types of Acids
You should know these weak and strong
acids – their names and formulas
 Practice

Identify each of the following species as a Brønsted

acid, base, or both. (a) HI, (b) CH3COO-, (c) H2PO4-

HI (aq) H+ (aq) + I- (aq) Brønsted acid

CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) CH3COOH (aq)

Brønsted base
H2PO4- (aq) H+ (aq) + HPO42- (aq) Brønsted acid

H2PO4- (aq) + H+ (aq) H3PO4 (aq) Brønsted base

 Brønsted Acids-Bases
Acids Bases
Non-metal Hydrides (Acids) Metal Hydrides
HF, HCl, HBr, HCN, HI, LiH, NaH,
HSCN, H2S KH, MgH2, CaH2

Oxyacids Metal Oxides

(Hydrides of polyatomic ions with oxygen) Li2O, Na2O, K2O,
HNO3; H2SO4, H3PO4 MgO, CaO

Metal Hydroxides
LiOH, NaOH, KOH,
Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

• All ions with negative charges are Bronstead bases

• Polyatomic ions that begin with H and carry negative
charge are both acid and base.
55
 Acid-Base Neutralization Reaction
• Neutralization reaction – Reaction between an acid and
base.
strong acid + base salt + water
• Neutralization reactions generally go to completion.

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Metal hydroixde

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

Net ionic equation for most of acid base reactions
Neutralization Reaction Involving a Weak Acids

Weak acids don’t dissociate or ionize.

weak acid + base salt + water

HCN (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCN (aq) + H2O (l)

HCN (aq) + Na+ + OH- Na+ (aq) + CN- (aq) + H2O (l)

HCN (aq) + OH- (aq) CN- (aq) + H2O (l)

HF (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaF (aq) + H2O (l)

HF (aq) + Na+ + OH- (aq) Na+ (aq) + F- (aq) + H2O (l)

HF (aq) + OH- (aq) F- (aq) + H2O (l)

 Neutralization Reaction Producing a Gas

acid + base salt + water + CO2

2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)+CO2 (g)

2H+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) 2Na+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

58
4. 4: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
and
Oxidation Numbers

59
 Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

• Third type of reactions in solutions involve transferring

electrons from one atom to another
 These are called oxidation-reduction reactions
 Also known as redox reactions
• The element that loses electrons in the reaction is
oxidized.
• The substance that gains electrons in the reaction is
reduced
• You cannot have one without the other

LEO: Loss of Electrons is Oxidation

GER: Gain of Electrons is Reduction. 60
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:
• It is important to note that many redox
reactions occur without the reactants
being dissolved in water.

LEO: Loss of Electrons is Oxidation

GER: Gain of Electrons is Reduction. 61
Oxidation of Zn

62
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
(Electron Transfer Reactions)

2Mg + O2 2MgO

2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4e- Oxidation half-reaction (lose e-)

O2 + 4e- 2O2- Reduction half-reaction (gain e-)
2Mg + O2 + 4e- 2Mg2+ + 2O2- + 4e-
2Mg + O2 2MgO 63
 Recognition of Redox Reactions

• Any reaction that has an element that is uncombined on

one side and combined on the other is a redox reaction
– Uncombined = Free element
2 CO + O2  2 CO2
2 N2O5  4 NO2 + O2
3 C + Fe2O3  3 CO + 2 Fe
Mg + Cl2  MgCl2
• Any reaction where a cation changes charge is redox
CuCl + FeCl3  FeCl2 + CuCl2
SnCl2 + F2  SnCl2F2

64
 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4e- Oxidation half-reaction (lose e-)

O2 + 4e- 2O2- Reduction half-reaction (gain e-)
2Mg + O2 + 4e- 2Mg2+ + 2O2- + 4e-

2Mg + O2 2MgO

• Reducing agent: • Oxidizing agent:

– Causes reduction – Causes oxidation
– Looses electrons – Gains electrons

66
 Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Zn is oxidized Zn is the reducing agent

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Cu2+ is reduced Cu2+ is the oxidizing agent

Copper wire reacts with silver nitrate to form silver metal.

What is the oxidizing agent in the reaction?

Cu (s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag (s)

Cu Cu2+ + 2e- Cu is the ?? agent
Ag+ + 1e- Ag Ag+ is reduced Ag+ is the oxidizing agent

67
 Oxidation Numbers
• The definitions of oxidation and reduction (loss and
gain of electrons) apply to the formation of ionic
compounds.
• However these definitions do not accurately
characterize the formation of molecular compounds.

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)  2 HCl (g)

S (g) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

• To keep track of electrons in redox reactions –

oxidation numbers (also called oxidation state) are
assigned to reactants and products.

68
 Oxidation Numbers

The charge the atom would have in a molecule (or an

ionic compound) if electrons were completely transferred.

1. Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation

number of zero.

Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0

2. In monatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to
the charge on the ion.

Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2

3. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2. In H2O2
and O22- it is –1. 69
 Oxidation Numbers

4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when

it is bonded to metals in binary compounds. In these
cases, its oxidation number is –1.
5. Group IA metals are +1, IIA metals are +2 and fluorine
is always –1.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in
a molecule or ion is equal to the charge on the
molecule or ion.
7. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers.
Oxidation number of oxygen in the superoxide ion,
O2-, is –½.

70
The Oxidation Numbers of Elements in their Compounds

71
 Oxidation Numbers

• Remember that the sum of the oxidation numbers of

a species (atom, molecule or ion) must equal the
charge on that species.
– Examples:
• SO2 --- Sum of charge of S and O must be
equation to zero - a neutral molecule
• SO42- --- The sum of the oxidation states of
sulfur plus four oxygens must sum to negative
two (-2)
72
 Oxidation Numbers

What are the oxidation numbers of all the elements in

HCO3- ?

HCO3-
O = –2 H = +1
3x(–2) + 1 + ? = –1
C = +4

73
What are the oxidation numbers of all the elements in each of
these compounds?
NaIO3 IF7 K2Cr2O7

74
What are the oxidation numbers of IF7
all the elements in each of these
compounds? F = -1
NaIO3 IF7 K2Cr2O7
7x(-1) + ? = 0
NaIO3 I = +7

Na = +1 O = -2
K2Cr2O7
3x(-2) + 1 + ? = 0
O = -2 K = +1
I = +5
7x(-2) + 2x(+1) + 2x(?) = 0
Cr = +6
75
 Practice
Find charge (oxidation number) on S in
following species:
• H2S H2S (−2),

• S2− S2− (−2)

• HS− HS− (−2)
• S8 S8 (0)
• SO2 SO2 (+4)
• SO3 SO3 (+6)
• H2SO4
H2SO4 (+6) 76
 Practice
Find charge on all elements in following
species:

• Cs2Cr2O7

• HClO4

• BaNaPO4

• K2TaF7
77
4. 4: Types of Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
 Types of Redox Reactions
1. Combination reactions
2. Decomposition reactions
3. Combustion reactions
4. Displacement reactions
– Hydrogen displacement
– Metal displacement
– Halogen displacement
5. Disproportionation reactions

79
 Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Combination Reaction: two (or more) reactants
combine together to make one product
A+B C
0 0 +3 -1
2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3

Additional Examples
2 CO + O2 2 CO2
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO
HgI2 + 2 KI K2HgI4
80
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Decomposition Reaction: a large molecule is
broken apart into smaller molecules or its elements

C A+B
+1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

Additional examples
2 FeCl3 ( s ) elec
 2 FeCl2 (l )  Cl 2 ( g )

2 HgO (s) 
 2 Hg (l)  O 2 ( g )
h
2 O 3  3 O2 81
 Combustion Reactions
• Reactions in which O2(g) is a reactant are called
Combustion Reactions
• Combustion reactions release lots of energy

2 C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

• Combustion reaction products:

Reactant Combustion Product

contains C CO2(g)
contains H H2O(g)
contains S SO2(g)
contains N NO(g) or NO2(g)
82
contains metal M2On(s)
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Combustion Reaction: Examples

A + O2 B
0 0 +4 -2
S + O2 SO2

0 0 +2 -2
2Mg + O2 2MgO

83
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Displacement Reaction: Reactions that involve one
anion being transferred from one cation to another

A + BC AC + B
0 +1 +2 0
Sr + 2H2O Sr(OH)2 + H2 Hydrogen Displacement
+4 0 0 +2
TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2 Metal Displacement
0 -1 -1 0
Cl2 + 2KBr 2KCl + Br2 Halogen Displacement

84
 Displacement Reactions
Sr + 2H2O Sr(OH)2 + H2
• We can experimentally determine which metals are
capable of replacing hydrogen from water or acids

TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2

• We can also determine which metals are capable of
displacing other metals from their solutions.

Cl2 + 2KBr 2KCl + Br2

• We can also determine whether halogens can displace
each other.
85
Order of Reactivity or Activity Series
• If we can experimentally determine the reactivity of
substances as described before, we can also
determine relative order (increasing or decreasing) of
reactivity as well.

• Example: Experimental results show that:

1. Mg displaces H+ ions from HCl(aq) to form H2 gas.
2. Zn also displaces H+ ions from HCl(aq) to form H2 gas.
3. Mg metal displaces Zn2+ ions from ZnCl2(aq) solution to form
Zn metal.
4. However, Zn metal does not displaces Mg2+ ions from
MgCl2(aq) solution.
Determine the relative order of reactivity of Mg, Zn and H 2?

86
 Activity Series
1. Mg metal displaces hydrogen ions out of solution
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2(g) + Mg2+(aq)
Therefore Mg is more reactive than hydrogen

2. Zn metal can also displace hydrogen ions from solution

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2(g) + Zn2+(aq)
Therefore Zn is more reactive than hydrogen

3. Magnesium metal can displace Zn2+ ions from solution

Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) → Zn(s) + Mg2+(aq)
4. Zinc metal cannot displace Mg ions
Zn (s) + Mg 2+(aq) → No reaction
Therefore Mg more reactive than zinc
87
 Activity Series

Accordingly:
1.Mg is more active than zinc,
2.Magnesium and zinc are more
reactive than hydrogen.
3.Therefore the activity series of these
elements would be Mg > Zn > H2.

88
 The Activity Series for Metals
Hydrogen Displacement Reaction

M + BC MC + B
M is metal
BC is acid or H2O
B is H2
Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

Pb + 2H2O Pb(OH)2 + H2

Activity series is a convenient summary of the results of

many possible displacement reactions 89
The Activity Series for Halogens
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Halogen Displacement Reaction
0 -1 -1 0
F2 + 2KCl 2KF + Cl2
0 -1 -1 0
Cl2 + 2KBr 2KCl + Br2
0 -1 -1 0
Br2 + 2KI 2KBr + I2

I2 + 2KBr 2KI + Br2

90
 Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Disproportionation Reaction
The same element is simultaneously oxidized and
reduced.
Examples: reduced

0 +1 -1
Cl2 + 2OH- ClO- + Cl- + H2O

oxidized

2H2O2 (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

91
 Practice: Classify each of the following reactions.

Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s) Precipitation

NH3 + H+ NH4+ Acid-Base

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 Redox (H2 Displacement)

Ca + F2 CaF2 Redox (Combination)

 Chemistry in Action: Breath Analyzer
+6
3CH3CH2OH + 2K2Cr2O7 + 8H2SO4

+3
3CH3COOH + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 11H2O

93
4. 5 Concentration of Solutions and
Solution Stoichiometry
 Topics Covered
• Concentration of Solutions
• Preparation Solutions
• Dilutions of Solutions
• Solution Stoichiometry

95
 Solution Stoichiometry

The concentration of a solution is the amount

of solute present in a given quantity of solvent
or solution.
moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution

96
 Solution Concentration: Molarity

moles of solute
molarity =
liters of solution

• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution

• Used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M , 1 liter
of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar, 2 liters =
4.0 moles sugar, 0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
97
 Preparing a Solution of Known Concentration

Add water to
dissolve the
Weigh out NaCl, then
1 mole (58.45 g) add water to
of NaCl and add the mark. Swirl to Mix
it to a 1.00 L
volumetric flask.

Preparing a 1.00 M NaCl Solution 98

 Solution Stoichiometry
What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of a
2.80 M KI solution?

M KI M KI
volume of KI solution moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI

99
Example —Calculate the Molarity of a Solution Made by Dissolving
15.5 g of NaCl in 1.50 L of Solution

Given: 15.5 g NaCl, 1.50 L solution

Find:
M
g NaCl mol NaCl
Solution Map:
L solution M
mo l
Relationships: M 
M = mol/L, 1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g L
Solve: 1 mol NaCl
15.5 g NaCl   0.2652 mol NaCl
58.44 g NaCl
0.2652 mol NaCl
M
1.50 L
M  0.177 M
Check:
The unit is correct, the magnitude is reasonable.

100
 Practice Exam Question
What mass of K2CO3 is needed to prepare 200. mL of a
solution having a potassium ion concentration of 0.150
M? (MM of K2CO3 = 138.2 g/mol
Given: 200 mL K2CO3 solution
A. 4.15 g 0.150 M K+ ions
B. 10.4 g Find: Mass of K2CO3 needed

C. 13.8 g
D. 2.07 g
E. 1.49 g

101

2.07 g
 Practice Exam Question
What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 3.50
mol NaCl in enough water to make 1.50 L of solution?
-A) 0.429 M

-B) 2.33 M

-C) 5.25 M

-D) 87.8 M

-E) 137 M

102
-B) 2.33 M
 Dilution of Solutions
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf 103

How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M HNO3
from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 M Mf = 0.200 M Vf = 0.0600 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 M x 0.0600 L

Vi = = = 0.00300 L = 3.00 mL
Mi 4.00 M

Dilute 3.00 mL of acid with water to a total

volume of 60.0 mL.
104
 Practice Exam Question
-How many mL of 16 M NH3 are needed to prepare 2.0 L
of a 2.0 M solution?
-A) 250 mL

-B) 125 mL

-C) 16 mL

-D) 8.0 mL

-E) 4.0 mL

105

-A) 250 mL
 Practice Exam Question

17.5 mL of a 0.1050 M Na2CO3 solution is added to 46.0

mL of 0.1250 M NaCl. What is the concentration of
sodium ions in the final solution?
A. 0.205 M
B. 0.119 M
C. 0.539 M
D. 0.148 M
E. 0.165 M

106
D. 0.148 M
17.5 mL of a 0.1050 M Na2CO3 solution is added to 46.0
mL of 0.1250 M NaCl. What is the concentration of sodium
ions in the final solution?
A. 0.205 M
B. 0.119 M
C. 0.539 M
D. 0.148 M
E. 0.165 M

107
D. 0.148 M
4. 7 Acid-Base Titrations

108
 Titration
• Using reaction stoichiometry to determine
the concentration of an unknown solution
• Titrant (unknown solution) added from a
buret
• Standard solution –Solution with know
concentration
• Indicators are chemicals added to help
determine when a reaction is complete
• The equivalence point (endpoint) of the
titration occurs when the reaction is
complete
 Acid-Base Titrations

Titrations can be used in the analysis

of
Acid-base reactions
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4
What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is required
to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4 solution?

WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

M rxn M
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
acid coef. base

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH
111
 Practice Exam Question

• 34.62 mL of 0.1510 M NaOH was needed to neutralize

50.0 mL of an H2SO4 solution. What is the concentration
of the sulfuric acid solution?
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

A. 0.0229 M
B. 0.218 M
C. 0.0523 M
D. 0.209 M
E. 0.105 M

112

C. 0.0523 M