COMPARATIVE

MODELS IN POLICNG
Claudine Bianca P. Bumagat-Mariano
 UNIT 1.
INTRODUCTION
 Policing is one of the most important of the functions
undertaken by the every sovereign government. For the state
machinery, police is an inevitable organ which would ensure
maintenance of law and order, and also the first link in the criminal
justice system.

The term “police” is now used primarily to denote a bod f

people organized to maintain peace and order an ensure public safety,
to enforce the law and to investigate breaches of the law.
Basic Terms to Ponder

■ The first police force (Metropolitan Police Force of London or Scotland Yard)
created in 1829, by Sir Robert Peel, he created 17 metropolitan police
divisions in London. In 1856 the rest of the country was required to establish
police force.

■ Since then, many different models of policing have been developed and
experimented with, developments in policing and crime control were fairly
rapid during the 1990s this is due to any reasons such as; changing patterns of
crime, changing demand on the police, and changing expectation of the police
and their role in communities.
Policing

■ is the practice for the maintenance of peace and order, law

enforcement and for the security of the community. - It is the
methods practice by police officers for the maintenance of
peace and order.
MODELS OF POLICING ACCORDING
TO STRUCTURE
■ CENTRALIZED POLICING SYSTEM - A system wherein there
is only one police force that is recognized and operates entire a
certain country.

■ DECENTRALIZED POLICING SYSTEM - A police system

wherein police administration and operation are independent from
one state to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal
government.
MODELS OF POLICING ACCORDING
TO APPROACH
■ PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING - A model of policing which is focused in preventing crime
from happening.
It stresses that substance and effectiveness over process and style, it is predominantly evidence
based. Goldstein outlines several purposes of this method of policing as follows;
– To prevent and control conduct which threatens life and property
– To aid victims and protect those in danger of physical harm
– To protect constitutional guarantees
– To facilitate the movement of people and vehicles
– To assist those who cannot care for themselves
– To resolve conflict between individuals, groups or citizens and their government
– To identify problems which may escalate for individuals, the police or even the government; o
– To create and maintain feeling of security in the community (Goldstein 1977 as stated in Scott
2000)
■ INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING MODEL - By Sir David Philips
– It originated from United Kingdom, it draws upon the notion that the
police can do know a great deal about offending patterns. The Police
should actively gather information about criminals and their organization
(Tilley, 2003).
– The core emphasis are as follows:
■ The focus on crime alone;
■ The means used are enforcement and disruption of criminal groups;
■ The measure is aimed to reduce the problem by undermining the ability of criminals
to do the business.
■ REACTIVE OR TRADITIONAL POLICING - It a model of policing
wherein police will respond when a call was received.
■ PREDICTIVE POLICING - A model of policing which includes predictive
and analytical techniques in Law Enforcement to identify potential offenders.
It is the usage of mathematical predictive and analytic techniques to identify
possible criminal activity.
■ REASSURANCE POLICING -
– It is a model of policing with the aim of identifying signals and it involves
the community in solving community-related problems. It is similar to
community oriented policing system. Signal crimes are those that shape
the community’s perception of risk from a particular type of crime during
a given period.
– It gives a feeling of safety that a citizen experiences when he knows that a
police officer or patrol car is nearby.
■ SCANNING, ANALYSIS, RESPONSES, ASSESSMENT (SARA) - A type of
policing which involves four steps in problem solving and decision making process.
– Scanning – it involves detection of patterns of problem activities, including
victims, location and types of crimes. It requires an evaluation of the problem,
the perception of the problem by both law enforcement and external partners
and analysis of the severity of the problem.
– Analysis – includes looking for the root causes of any problems or issues
identified. Information gathered from variety of sources, including crime reports
and community members who are directly affected by the issue. Causes of
problems can include many factors, including neighborhood and community
perceptions of law enforcement themselves.
– Once cause was identified, law enforcement officials will work with the
community to come up with and execute an appropriate, long term response.
– After the Response is implemented, an on-going Assessment is required to
evaluate the effectiveness of the solution and make adjustment if necessary.
COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM
It is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system of nations. It covers
the study of police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various nations.
Comparing Police System as well as Models of Policing could be through the following
methods:
 Safari Method – it is a type of research in comparative criminology wherein a researcher
will visit another country for comparison purposes.
 Collaborative Method – one researcher will collaborate the work to a foreign researcher.
 Historical Comparative – most often employed by researchers, used quantitative and
qualitative method (known as Historiography or Holism).
 Unpublished Works Comparison – single culture study and two culture study using
published works.
■ INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE
– It involves the study and description of one country’s law, criminal procedure or justice
process. It attempts to build on the knowledge of criminal justice of one country by
investigating and evaluating, in terms of another country, culture or institution.

■ COMPARATIVE CRIMINAL JUSTICE

– It is a subfield of the study of criminal justice that compares justice system worldwide. Such
study can take descriptive, historical or political approach. It studies the differences and
similarities in the structure, goals, punishments and emphasis on rights as well as the
history and political structure of different systems.

■ TRANSNATIONAL POLICING
– It pertains to all forms of policing that transgress national borders.

■ INTERNATIONAL POLICING
– It indicates to those type of policing that are formally directed by institutions usually
responsible for international affairs
■ GLOBAL POLICING
– Indicates those forms of policing that are fully global in scope.

■ GLOBALIZATION
– A process of interaction and integration among the people, companies and governments of
different nations. A process driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology. The process has effects on the environment, on culture, on
political systems, on economic development and prosperity and on human physical well-
being in societies around the world.
– The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views,
products, ideas and other aspects of culture. Put in simple terms, globalization refers to
processes that promote worldwide exchanges of national and cultural resources. Advances
in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of internet, are
major factors in globalization generating further interdependence of economic and
cultural activities.
 Advantages Disadvantages

With the implementation of globalization technology has Globalization can raise the problem of inequality
been altered to a great extent and paved the way for overall everywhere in the world by increasing specialization
development. which results in poverty.

Globalization has helped provide better services to people Globalization can increase the unemployment rate since
worldwide and increased the GDP rate. it demands higher-skilled work at a lower price.

Over the years, trade imbalance has increased in

Owing to globalization, governments have been able to help
developed countries by competition in the market due to
economic growth and aid the advancement of infrastructure.
globalization.

Countries around the world now have access to trade and Globalization favors industrialization that sometimes
commerce worldwide with affordable commodities rates. harms the environment.

Globalization has supported domestic companies to satisfy Overall economic growth in such developing countries
the growth of foreign clients and Hop on the global Trend. may be slowed due to globalization.
Effects of Globalization to Law Enforcement

■The facilitation of transnational crimes and criminals can be easily achieved.

■There is a need for transnational policing. The cooperation among police
organizations in the world is vital.
■Training instructions for incoming law enforcement officers must include
advance computer to prepare them as cyber cops so they can be better prepared to
deal with cybercrimes.
■Development of new strategies to deal with international organized crimes is a
must.
■Provisions of law enforcement with updated legislations related to modernization
theories of crime.
SEVEN THEORIES OF
COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY
1. ALERTNESS TO CRIME THEORY - Explains that people’s alertness to crime
is heightened so they report more crimes to the police and also demand the
police to become more effective in solving crime problems.

2. ECONOMIC OR MIGRATION THEORY - Crime is a result of unrestrained

migration and overpopulation in urban areas such as ghettos and slums.

3. OPPORTUNITY THEORY - Along with higher standard of living, victims

become more careless of their belongings and opportunities for committing of
crime multiply.
4. DEMOGRAPHIC THEORY - Greater numbers of children are being born,
because as these baby booms grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of the
adolescent identity crisis.

5. DEPRIVATION THEORY - Progress comes along with rising expectations and

people at the bottom develop unrealistic expectations while people at the top do not
see themselves rising fast enough.

6. MODERNIZATION THEORY - Sees the problem as society becoming too

complex.

7. ANOMIE AND SYNOMIE THEORY - The latter being is a term referring to

social cohesion on values; suggest that progressive lifestyle and norms result in the
disintegration of older norms that once held people together.
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

■ MONARCHY
– One which supreme power of sovereignty is vested in the
rules of a monarch. Monarchy is classified into two:
■ a. Absolute Monarchy - Where the ruler rules the divine right.
■ b. Limited or Constitutional Monarchy - The power of the ruler
is limited to a constitution.
■ ARISTOCRACY
– (The rule of the few)
■ a. Derive from Greek word aristocracia meaning “the rule of the best”.
■ b. Form of government in which supreme power is vested in the few privileged class or
group wherein high power is based from birth, wealth and wisdom. It is otherwise known
as Oligarchy.
■ c. Related terms
– i. Autocracy – derived from Greek word autocrat means self-ruler or he who rules by
oneself. It is usually seen as synonymous with despot, tyrant or dictator.
– ii. Communist state – a state with the form of a government characterized by single
party rule of communist party and a professed allegiance to a communist ideology as
the guiding principle of a state.
– iii. Corporatocracy or Corpocracy – a form of government where a corporation, a
group of corporation or government entities with private components control the
direction and governance of a country.
■ 3. DEMOCRACY
– (rule by people)
■ a. The supreme power is vested in the people.
■ b. “It is a government of the people by the people and for the people.”
(Former US President Abraham Lincoln)
■ c. It is classified into:
– i. Direct Democracy – where the people directly govern themselves.
Sometimes called as PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY.
– ii. Indirect Democracy – the people elect representatives to act on their
behalf. (ex. Philippines
■ ANARCHY
– a. Derived from the GREEK word anarchia which means “without a ruler”.
– b. Society free from coercive authority of any kind.
– c. Related terms:
■ i. Anarchism – a philosophical movement rise in the mid-19th century, with its idea of
freedom being based upon political and economic self-culture. Started by Pierre Joseph
Proudhon in his book “What is Property?”
■ ii. Anarchist – those who advocate the absence of the state, arguing that common sense
would allow people to come together in agreement to form a functional society
allowing for the participants to freely develop their sense of morality, ethics or
principled behavior.
COUNTRIES WITH LOW CRIME
RATE
■ JAPAN
– Strong shame-based country rather than
guilt-based.
– Some reasons of low crime rate.
– Community policing.
– Patriarchal family system
– Importance of higher education.
– The way business serve as surrogate
families.
■ EGYPT
– Siwa Oasis embraces the law of tradition
(URRF LAW)
– Composed of 23,000 population, 11 tribes.
– Plato: fashioned his model of a perfect
government.
– Last crime around 1950.
– Case is manslaughter.
– Punishment: social ostracization or
shunning (the act of being excluded from
the community
■ IRELAND
– Low crime rate despite of
serious unemployment problem,
presence of large urban ghettos,
crisis with religious terrorism.

 SWITZERLAND
- Advertised in travel brochures as no crimes
in Switzerland.
- High rate of firearm ownership but low
crime rate.
- Effective in using “iron fist” or velvet
gloves.
TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES
 Refers to crimes that takes place or transgress across national
borders.

 Offenses whose inception, prevention and/or direct or indirect

effects involve more than one country.

 Transnational crimes also include crimes that take place in one

country, but their consequences significantly affect another country.
COMMON FORMS OF TRANSNATIONAL
CRIMES

•TERRORISM
•DRUG TRAFFICKING
•MONEY LAUNDERING
•HUMAN TRAFFICKING
•HUMAN SMUGGLING
•SMALL ARMS TRAFFICKING
•CYBERCRIMES, ETC.
The UN has identified several different
categories of transnational crime: • illicit traffic in arms,
• aircraft hijacking,
■ drug trafficking
• sea piracy,
■ trafficking in persons, • hijacking on land,
■ organ trafficking, • insurance fraud,
• environmental crime,
■ trafficking in cultural property,
• fraudulent bankruptcy,
■ counterfeiting, • infiltration of legal business,
■ money laundering, • corruption and bribery of public
officials,
■ terrorist activities,
• and other offences committed by
■ theft of intellectual property, organized criminal groups (UNODC,
2002, p. 4).
Transnational Organized Crime Group

is organized crime coordinated across national borders, involving

groups or markets of individuals working in more than one country to
plan and execute illegal business ventures.[1] In order to achieve their
goals, these criminal groups use systematic violence and corruption.
Common transnational organized crimes include conveying drugs,
conveying arms, trafficking for sex, toxic waste disposal, materials
theft and poaching.
TERRORISM
■ Etymology (study of origin)
– Comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to
state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the reign of terror.
– The French word terrorisme turn derives from the Latin verb terreṓ meaning “I
frighten”

• The commission of crimes (rebellion, murder, kidnapping, hijacking etc.) that sow or create a
condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic among the populace in order to
coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand. (R.A. 9372 or the H.S.A.)

• Probably the most important goal of terrorist activity is to generate publicity on a worldwide
scale.
Definition of Terrorism under the United
Nations
Terrorism as any act “intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to
civilians or noncombatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or
compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain
from doing any act”.

The systematic use of terror as a means of coercion.

TYPES OF TERRORIST
■ National Terrorist - Sued to define almost all illegal acts of violence
committed for political purpose by clandestine groups. Ex. New People’s
Army (NPA)

■ Transnational Terrorist - Terrorists who operates across national borders,

whose actions and political operations may affects individual of more than
one country.

■ International Terrorist - Terrorists who are controlled by and whose actions

represent the national interest of a sovereign state.
TYPES OF TERRORISM (According to
Area of Operation)
■ . International Terrorism
– It refers to the use or threatened use of violence against person or property
by a group or an individual whose operations transcend national
boundaries and are done to further political and social objectives
■ Mission Specific Cells – In terrorist’s organization, it refers to small units which are
put together for the purpose of executing specific assignments
■ Sleeper Cells – in terrorist organizations, it refers to small groups of recruits who are
in placed in target and other countries. Living ordinary lives until activated for the
cause, may also perform services for the immediate group. E.g. counter and
reconnaissance tasks.
■ Cell – it is the smallest element and building block of terrorist organization
■ . Domestic Terrorism
– It refers to the use or the threatened used of violence against person or
property by a group (or an individual) whose operations are entirely within
the victims nation, without following direction and are done to further
political and social objectives.

■ Rightwing Terrorist – it refers to domestic terrorist group who adhere to the principles of
racial supremacy embraces anti-government and anti-regulatory beliefs.
■ Leftwing Terrorist – it refers to domestic terrorist group who profess a revolutionary
socialist doctrine and view themselves as protectors of the people against the
dehumanizing effect of capitalism and imperialism.
■ Special Interests Groups – it refers to domestic terrorist group who perhaps the most
active special interests groups in United States or the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and
the Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
TYPES OF TERRORISM (According to
Weapons or Methods Used)
1. Chemical Terrorism - it refers to the utilization of chemicals in committing
terrorism.
2. Bio Terrorism – it refers to the intentional release of toxic biological agents to
harm and terrorize civilians in the nature of political or other cause. Category a
(biological diseases) are those likely to do the most damage. It includes:
– Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) – most commonly used biological agent
– Botulism (clostrodium botulinum toxin)
– The plague (Yersinia pestis)
– Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
– Hemorrahagic fever, due to Ebola Virus or Marburg Virus
3. Radiologic Terrorism – it refers to the utilization of radioactive substances in
committing terrorism.

4. Nuclear Terrorism – it refers to number of waste, nuclear materials might be

exploited as a terrorist tactics. These includes:
a. Attacking nuclear facilities
b. Purchasing nuclear weapons
c. Building nuclear weapons

5. Explosives Terrorism – it is the most common form of terrorism through the

utilization of explosives in committing acts of terrorism.
■ Cyberterrorism – it refers to a type of terrorism that uses computers
and networks. It can allow disruption in military communications and
even electrical power.

– Aum Shrinkyo and the Tamil – terrorist groups usually use

cyberterrorism to fail the computer security or to show off their
technical abilities.

– Ways of demonstrating cyberterrorism: o By controlling from a

distance electrical things such as dams or power plants. o By
destroying the actual machines that contains the electronic
information.