Chap- 3

Designing IP addressing and

Routing Protocols
This chapter has three sections
1.Addressing Fundamentals (IP Addressing
Basics, Importance of IP addressing design, ,
Private vs Public IP addressing , Addressing
mechanisms)
2.Routing Fundamentals (importance of routing
design, Selecting Routing Protocols)
3.Network Management
 Sec-#1. Addressing Fundamentals
IP Addressing Basics
IP Addressing is assigning identifiers to devices. These identifiers
can be local or global, private or public, temporary or persistent.
An IP address uniquely identifies a device on an IP network.
Remember address classification?
Why do you call transport layer as process to process address?
IP addressing is a Network Foundation service, which makes it
core to the network design.
IP version 4 (IPv4) addresses, which uniquely identify a device on
an IP network, are 32 bits in length and are typically communicated
in a format known as dotted decimal.
Routing consists of learning about the reachability within and
between networks and applying this reachability to forward packets
in the network.
Together, they form a complete picture of network connectivity for
our network design.
IP Addressing Basics/Terminology
IP address: is a numeric identifier assigned to each
machine on an IP network.
IP Addressing uses a combination of Address
Identifier and Mask.
– The mask is used to separate the address into a
network and host function.
IP address has two portions: Network and Host.
Network address: is the designation used in routing
to send packets to a remote network for example,
10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
How do you distinguish the Network and Host of an
address?
IP Addressing Basics/Terminology
The network address also called the network number
uniquely identifies each network.
Every machine on the same network shares that
network address as part of its IP address.
In the IP address 172.16.30.56, for example, 172.16 is the
network address.

The host address: is assigned to, and uniquely identifies,

each machine on a network.
This part of the address must be unique because it
identifies a particular machine. This number can also be
referred to as a host address. So in the sample IP
address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the host address.
 IP Addressing Basics/Terminology
Broadcast address: The broadcast address is used by
applications and hosts to send information to all hosts on
a network.
Examples include 255.255.255.255, which designates all
networks and all hosts; 172.16.255.255, which specifies
all subnets and hosts on network 172.16.0.0; and
10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all subnets and hosts
on network 10.0.0.0.
An IP v 4 address consists of 32 bits of information
where as IP v6 128 bits information.
You can depict an IP address using
4-Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
Public IP addresses: are managed by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA).
Addresses that are routed through the public Internet.
Users are assigned IP addresses by ISPs.
ISPs obtain allocation of IP addresses from their appropriate
Regional Internet Registry (RIR).
A public IP address is an IP address that can be accessed
directly over the internet and is assigned to your network router
by your internet service provider (ISP). Your personal device
also has a private IP that remains hidden when you connect to
the internet through your router’s public IP.
A private IP address is the address your network router assigns
to your device. Each device within the same network is assigned
a unique private IP address (sometimes called a private network
address) — this is how devices on the same internal network
talk to each other.
 Private IP addresses: are those that cannot be advertised and
forwarded by network devices in the public domain. Private
addresses are used in Network Address Translation (NAT).
Private IP addresses let devices connected to the same network
communicate with one another without connecting to the entire
internet. By making it more difficult for an external host or user
to establish a connection, private IPs help strengthen security
within a specific network, like in your home or office.
Private addresses according to RFC 1918 are:
10.0.0.0- 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0.0- 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0- 192.168.255.255
IP addresses can be either temporary or persistent, usually
depending on how they are configured within the network.
Temporary addresses: Addresses that are assigned for a short
duration of time using DHCP.
Persistent addresses: Addresses that are assigned either manually
or hardcoded for a long duration of time or permanently.
e.g., link-layer addresses (MAC addresses)
Local addresses: Addresses that are recognized locally, at the LAN
or subnet. Such addresses are usually at the data-link (e.g.,
Ethernet) layer.
MAC address== Local addresses???
Global addresses: Addresses that are recognized worldwide. Such
addresses are usually at the network (IP) layer.
Global addresses==IP address???
Global addresses are separated traditionally as private and public
addresses.
H
Classes of networks
Subdividing an IP address into a network and host address is
determined by the class designation of your network.

E.g. In a Class A network address, the first byte is assigned to

the network address, and the three remaining bytes are used for
the host addresses. The Class A format is as follows:
network.host.host.host
 Importance of IP Address Design
How to develop an IPv4 Addressing Plan/Design?
An IP addressing plan is a document usually developed by
network/design engineers to show how the IP addresses will be
distributed among the network devices based on the network
architecture or topology in a way that support the required services.
Allocating, recycling, and documenting IP addresses and subnets in
a network can get confusing, if you have not laid out an IP
addressing plan.
A sound plan will help you prepare the network foundation to
support additional services such as unified communications, wireless
access, and enhanced network security.
IP addressing is a Network Foundation service, which makes it core
to the network design. It provides the base for all other network and
user services.
Without the foundation, it would not be possible to interact with
network and user services, starting from picking up the phone, using
the phone service until reading email using the email service.
 Importance of IP Address Design
How to develop an IPv4 Addressing Plan/Design?
By using recommended IP address management standards and
good designs, you can avoid the ff main problems in our network
propjet:
• Overlapping or duplicate subnets
• Non-summarization in the network
• Duplicate IP address device assignments
• Wasted IP address space
• Unnecessary complexity
 Importance of IP Address Design
What are the benefits? The IP addressing plan:
will determine the number of IP addresses required immediately
and in the long term to deliver the specified services to your
customers.
will also be used by your network engineers to maintain
reachability between the different network segments.
will ease future network expansion and modification.
Will decide which mechanism to be used
What are the benefits? The IP addressing plan/Design enables
designers to have the following information
List of the intended services.
Number of devices on your network.
Number of Network/site (local or distributed/remote).
Statistics about users on the network (concurrent users).
Any available network topology diagram or architecture.
 Importance of IP Address Design
What are the benefits? Also the IP addressing plan/Design
helps designers to determine the requirements for your core
network:
Determining the size of the network
How many locations does the network consist of?
How many devices in each location need address?
What are the IP address requirements for individual
locations?
What subnet size is appropriate?

How many network nodes do you have?

Will the nodes be using public or private IP addresses?
 Importance of IP Address Design
Determine the IP addresses required per node depending on the
connection mechanism.
If additional IP addresses is required for management then
identify them.
The management IP addresses for network devices are usually
public IP addresses that might or might not be reachable through
the Internet. Add them to the public IP addresses per node.
Calculate the figures as follows:
Public IP addresses = no. of network nodes x public IP addresses
per node
Private IP addresses = no. of network nodes x private IP addresses
per node
 Importance of IP Address Design
In summary It helps to determine
No. of nodes General Benefits
No. Network Segments •Provides a solid network foundation
Core Network •Makes deployment fast and easy
No. of WAN connections •Accelerates ability to easily deploy
additional services
Services
No. of Customers •Avoids the need for re-engineering of
the core network
No. of IP addresses required.
No. of server
•Flexible architecture to help ensure
easy migration as the agency grows
No. private IP addresses per nodes
No. public IP addresses per node
Methods for assigning IP Addresses
Classes of IP Addresses
Addressing Mechanisms in a network project
1. Classful addressing
–is applying predetermined mask lengths to addresses in order to
support a range of network sizes
2. Subnetting
– A better way to distribute addresses and solve problems with
classful addressing
3. Variable-length subnetting
– Even more refined than subnetting
4. Supernetting and classless interdomain routing (CIDR).
– is aggregating network addresses, An efficient way to advertise
addresses, and currently used on the Internet.
5. Private addressing and NAT.
is using IP addresses that cannot be advertised and forwarded by
network and user devices in the public domain
– A way to re-use certain IP addresses without collision with the
1. Classful Addressing
Outdated form of addressing mechanisms that offers a
simplistic solution for addressing schemes.
Address devices Based on pre-determined mask lengths–
Class A = Mask 255.0.0.0 (127 Networks & over 16M
Addresses/Hosts), First Octet Range 1-126
– Class B = Mask 255.255.0.0 (16K Networks & 64K
Addresses/Hosts), First Octet Range 128-191
– Class C = Mask 255. 255. 255.0 (2M Networks & 254
Addresses/Hosts), First Octet Range 192-223
– Class D = Multicast address, First Octet Range 224-239
– Class E is reserved, First Octet Range 240-255
What are the limits of classful addressing? What is the
solution?
Discuss on this
1.Limitations of Classful addressing?
2.Why most companies use class A network addresses?
3.How do you distinguish the network ID portion of the IP
address from the host ID portion the IP address?
4.How classful addressing determine the net mask?
5.What is the longest subnet mask available for your
network project?
6.Is 127.0.0.1 is a valid host address? Why or why not
Solutions
First, since there are relatively few Class A and B
addresses, they have already been allocated. This leaves
new networks with only Class C address space. Thus, a
network may require many Class C addresses.
Second, these class boundaries are not an efficient use of
network addresses.
Not flexible method to match address space to the
requirements of each network.
Many networks require more addresses than a single
Class C can provide, yet are not large enough to justify a
Class A or B, even if such network addresses were
available. There are networks that have Class A or B
addresses but can only use a small fraction of the total
address space. (Wastage of addresses) 20
2.Subnetting:dividing a network into multiple
subnetworks.
It is a way how to break a network into multiple smaller
networks/segments.
Allows a classful network address to be segmented into
smaller sections by using part of the device address to
create another level of hierarchy.
Basically it takes address space away from the devices
and gives it to the network.
Useful for Internal addressing and routing
– Allows you to assign subnets to specific buildings, or
specific groups, hence localizing traffic and simplifying
routing.
21
 Subnetting…
Benefits of subnetting
Reduced network traffic--Routers create broadcast domains.
The more broadcast domains you create, the smaller the
broadcast domains are and the less network traffic is on each
network segment.
Optimized network performance-- This is the very cool reward
you get when you reduce network traffic!
Simplified management--- It’s easier to identify and isolate
network problems in a group of smaller connected networks
than within one gigantic network.
Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances-- Because
WAN links are considerably slower and more expensive than
LAN links, a single large network that spans long distances can
create problems in every area previously listed. Connecting
multiple smaller networks makes the system more efficient.
 There are 3 ways to assign addresses for devices
using subnetting for your network design.
1.Subnetting when given a required number of
networks

2.Subnetting when given a required number of clients

3.Given an IP address and subnet mask finding

original network range (reverse engineering subnet
problem).
Subnetting style 1: Subnetting when given a required
number of networks
Ex-1. A service provider has given you the class C
network range 209.50.1.0. Your company must break
the network into 20 separate subnets.
Solve?
Ex-2, Your company would like to break the class B
private IP address 172.16.0.0 into 60 different subnets.
Solve?
Ex-3, Class A 10.0.0.0 and need: 500 networks. Solve?
Ex-4, Class B break into 1000 networks? Solve
Ex-5, Class C 195.5.20.0 and need: 50 networks. Solve?

24
Ex-5 subnet this network senario
 Ex-6 A company has bought IP class address 136.178.0.0. It has
14 departments and it wants to give each its own subnet. What
will be each of the subnets, and their subnet mask?
To do such subnetting problems for a specified network
design we use the following three steps.
Step-1. determine the number of networks and convert to
binary.
Step-2. reserve required bits in the subnet mask and find
incremental value.
Step-3. use increment to find network ranges.
To create subnetworks, you take bits from the host portion
of the IP address and reserve them to define the subnet
address. This means fewer bits for hosts, so the more
subnets, the fewer bits are left available for defining
hosts.
What can we figure out from this subnetting/workout
We can assign valid network ranges to our networks.
We can reduce complexity of address assignment
First and last addresses from each range
(network/broadcast IP) are unusable.
It helps as to identify IP address problems that may
occur during implementations (Easy for troubleshooting
problems)
It localizes traffic flows and simplifying routing traffic!
Reduces congestions
Optimizes the router performance as well as the whole
network system performance
It reduces queueing algorithms
We can forward or discard the information or packet
What can we figure out from this subnetting/workout
 It provides security to one network from another
network. e.g.) In an Organization, code of the Developer
department must not be accessed by another department.
 It may be possible that a particular subnet might
need higher network priority than others. For example, a
Finance department need to host webcasts or video
conferences b/c they have their own network ranges.
 In the case of Small networks, maintenance or
troubleshooting is is easy.
Subnetting and network management require an experienced
network administrator. This adds to the overall cost as well. So
it gives time for the network owner to think over the IT
professionals to get for accurate management of his network
Subnetting style-2: when given a required number of
clients
Ex-1 A service provider has given you the class C network
range 209.50.1.0. Your company must break the
network into as many subnets as possible as long as
there are at least 50 clients per network.
Solve ?
Ex-2, Your company would like to break the class B
private IP address 172.16.0.0 into as many subnets as
possible, provided that they can get at least 300 clients
per subnet. Solve?
Ex-3, Class B 150.5.0.0 and need: 500hosts per n/w. Solve?
Ex-4, Class C 195.5.20.0 and need: 50 clients. Solve?
29
 Ex-5

To do such subnetting problems for a specified network

design we use the following three steps.
Step-1. determine the number of clients and convert to
binary.
Step-2. reserve required bits in the subnet mask and find
incremental value.
Step-3. use increment to find network ranges.
Subnetting style-3 Reverse Engineering subneting
This helps us in determining IP address problems
Ex-1

1.Is this IP address valid?

2.What is the range of this pc address it belongs to when it is
designed during its last implementation?
Example 2
Ex-2 determine this IP address problem

Does the pc’s from the sales department can communicate with
all of the pc’s in the marketing department?
Is the default gateway address of Lab_A valid?
If there is any problem how do you fix the IP problems? Put
your solution.
Ex-3 Find the valid host ranges
Find the following. What IP address, subnet mask, and valid
host address could be assigned to the hosts in the two figures
below?
Fig#1 Fig#2
 Ex-4

1.Determine that if this PC can communicate with the router

interface.
2.Is the pc IP address valid?
3.What network range the router interface address belongs to?
 Five big questions of Subnetting
When you’ve chosen a possible subnet mask for
your network and need to determine the number of
subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a
subnet that the mask provides, all you need to do is
answer these five questions:
1.How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask
produce?
2.How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
3.What are the valid subnets?
4.What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
5.What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
1. How many subnets? 2 = number of subnets. x is the number
x

of masked bits, or the 1s. For example, in 11000000, the

number of 1s gives us 22 subnets. In this example, there are 4
subnets.

2. How many hosts per subnet? 2 – 2 = number of hosts per

y

subnet. y is the number of unmasked bits, or the 0s. For

example, in 11000000, the number of 0s gives us 26 – 2 hosts. In
this example, there are 62 hosts per subnet. You need to
subtract 2 for the subnet address and the broadcast address,
which are not valid hosts.

3. What are the valid subnets? 256 – subnet mask = block size, or
increment number. An example would be 256 – 192 = 64. The
block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in
blocks of 64 until you reach the subnet mask value, and these
4. What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? broadcast
address is always the number right before the next subnet. For
example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the
next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127
because the next subnet is 128.

5. What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers
between the subnets, omitting all the 0s and all 1s. For example, if
64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast address, then
65–126 is the valid host range it’s always the numbers between the
subnet address and the broadcast address.
Example Questions
1. Given an IP address and subnet mask of 192.168.20.10
and 255.255.255.240 then calculate the following.
A. Network address
B. 1st host address
C. Broadcast address
D. Last host address
2. You have given a class B IP address of 140.200.100.50
then determine the above in ex-1 A-D.

3. A router receives a packet on an interface with a

destination address of 172.16.46.191/26. What will the
router do with this packet? Discard it. Do you know why?
Practice Questions
Practice Example #1: 255.255.255.128 (/ 25) We’re
going to subnet the Class C network address
192.168.10.0.
Answer the five questions based on your subnet
Practice Example #2: 255.255.255.192 (/26). We ’re
going to subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 using
the subnet mask 255.255.255.192.
Answer the five questions based on your subnet
Practice Example #3: 255.255.192.0 (/18). Let’s take a
look at a second example with class B. 172.16.0.0 =
Network address and 255.255.192.0 = Subnet mask
Answer the five questions based on your subnet
Practice Example #4: 255.255.240.0 (/20). Given that
172.16.0.0 = Network address and 255.255.240.0 =
Subnet mask
Answer the five questions based on your subnet
39
 The great Exceptions in subnetting
Because binary begins counting from zero
The following network values through off your calculations
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128
The following host values through off your calculations
3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127
Solution to such kind of subnetting problems
Subtract 1 when finding networks
Add 1 when finding hosts
Examples
for 200.0.10.0 class C do for 16 subnets
For 192.168.10.0 class C do for 7 hosts
What problems do you notice in providing IP
address using subnetting addressing mechanisms?
Wastage of many IP addresses
Cost of the overall Network also increases. Because
Subnetting requires internal routers, Switches, Hubs,
Bridges etc. which are very costly.
Subnetting increases the network's complexity for an
experienced network administrator
It increases Time complexity. In the case of Subnet,
more time is required for communication or data
transfer. for example four steps are required for Inter-
Network Communication. i.e. Source Host to Destination
Network, Destination Network to proper Subnet, then
Subnet to Host and finally Host Hence, it increases Time
come to Process.
3. Variable-length subnetting
Subnetting divides the network into a number of equal-sized
subnets which is often inefficient. Wastage of many addresses
Variable-length subnetting is subnetting in which non-equal or
variable length subnets are used.
Ex-1 subnet 192.168.1.0/24 to address this network given below
and use the most efficient addressing possible.
What problems do you notice in providing IP address
using Variable-length subnet masking addressing
mechanisms? Limitations of VLSM
It increases the number of routing tables in an IP network
It follows flat routing, in which every routing table carries a
unique entry for each route which decrease router performance
It is easy to make mistakes in address assignment, so double-
check your calculations before deploying them.
It is more confusing and difficult to monitor your network with
all the new subnets.
There are more routing entries, and it is difficult to configure
summarization.
There is an increased possibility of assigning overlapping subnets.
When using VLSM, be careful about assigning addresses, for
example, with a Class B network number of 131.108.0.0.
4. Supernetting and CIDR =Route Summarization
subnetting is the process of lengthening the mask to create
multiple smaller subnetworks, or subnets. Route summarization
is the opposite process. It involves shortening the mask to include
several smaller networks into one larger network address. This is
why it is also known as supernetting.
Supernetting is aggregating network addresses, by changing the
address mask to decrease the number of bits recognized as the
network.
By decreasing the number of bits recognized as the network, we
are in effect ignoring part of the network address, which results
in aggregating network addresses.
Supernetting reduced the number of advertisements in the
Internet and changed the way that most people view addressing.
4. Supernetting and CIDR =Route Summarization
As the network size increases, the number of individual networks
listed in the IP route table also increases, as does packet size.
Routers cannot effectively handle a large number of
subnetworks, which leads to slowdowns, packet losses and even
crashes. That's why it's important to reduce the number of
entries in the route table, which is what route summarization
accomplishes.
With route summarization, many routes are advertised with
just one line in an update packet, which not only reduces the
packet size, but also allows more bandwidth for data
transfer.
 4. Supernetting and CIDR
CIDR is a mechanism developed to help alleviate the problem of
IP address exhaustion and growth of routing tables.
It is an Address Assignment and Aggregation Strategy.
With route summarization, also referred to as route aggregation
or supernetting, one route in the routing table represents many
other routes.
CIDR is a convention defined in RFCs 1517 through 1520 that
calls for aggregating routes for multiple classful network numbers
into a single routing table entry.
The primary goal of CIDR is:
to improve the scalability of Internet routers' routing tables.
 to reduce the size of the Internet routing tables.
reduces the routing update traffic
 reduces the number of routes in the routing table
reduces overall router overhead in the router receiving the
routes.
4. Supernetting and CIDR
The term classless interdomain routing (CIDR) is used to
denote the absence of class boundaries in network routing.

(CIDR)- It’s basically the method that Internet service

providers (ISPs) use to allocate a number of addresses to a
company or a home connection. They provide addresses in a
certain block size; When you receive a block of addresses
from an ISP, 192.168.10.32/28. telling you what your subnet
mask is. Slash notation (/)-how many bits are turned on (1s).

There are some conventions that are followed in

Supernetting: The number of addresses in a CIDR block is a
power of 2, and the block of addresses is contiguous,
meaning that there are no holes in this address space.
4. Supernetting and CIDR
It is addition of two or more classful network addresses
belongs to the same class.
It is reverse/inverse of subnetting, It is also known as CIDR
Combining multiple networks into single networks
Converting network bits to host bits-i.e. converting 1s into
0s
Calculated address is called supernet NID.
New Mask is termed the supernet mask.
Mask of supernet NID will be less than default mask

Benefits of Supernetting
-----reduce network traffic
-----minimize the size of routing table
4. Supernetting and CIDR
Why is route summarization important?
If a router needs to advertise 50 routes, it will need 50 specific
lines in its update packet. As these routes increase, the number of
lines required also increases, expanding packet size and the
amount of bandwidth used. That means there will be less
bandwidth available for actual data transfer.
Route summarization enables multiple routes to be advertised
with only one line in an update packet, reducing the packet size
and leaving more bandwidth for data transfer.
Also, each time a new data flow enters a router, it must identify
which interface the traffic must be sent out to. For this, it must
perform a lookup in its routing table. This process takes longer for
large routing tables and requires more router central processing
unit (CPU) cycles to route traffic.
Route summarization can eliminate this problem by minimizing
both the time required to perform lookup and reducing the
 4. Supernetting/CIDR
Route aggregation offers several advantages, including the
following:
Reduces the number of entries in the route table, which
reduces the load on the router and network overhead for
routing protocols;
Minimizes latency in a complex network, especially when
many routers are involved;
Reduces or eliminates unnecessary routing updates after part
of the network undergoes a change in CPU cycles topology;
Saves memory since routing tables will be smaller in size;
Helps save bandwidth as there are fewer routes to advertise;
Reduces processor workloads and saves, since there are fewer
packets to process and smaller routing tables to work on.
E.g. Addressing for a company with 10,000 devices. If you
use a single Class B, it could support up to 65,534 devices, it
is plenty and cost for this company, but a Class B is not
available, so Class C addresses are used instead.
A single Class C can support up to 254 devices, so 40 Class
C networks are needed (40 networks × 254 addresses=
10,160 total addresses).
So, when 40 Class C networks are allocated to this company
(e.g., 192.92.240.0 through 192.92.279.0), routes to each
network have to be advertised to the Internet.
So instead of advertising 40 different networks use
aggregating those networks and advertise to the Internet via
one network ID.
The solution was Supernetting to aggregate the networks.
 Steps to do Supernetting
Step1: write all given IP numbers in binary
Step2: find matching bits left to write up to match
Spep3: write up to match as it is and “0” up to end
convert it back to decimal and that is our network
(supernet NID)=aggregated NID to be advertised to the
Internet
Step4: Make all “1” up to match and “0” up to end (new
mask)=supernet mask to be advertised to be the Internet
together with the supernetted NID
=====Then we finally write Supernet NID/CIDR
E.g#1 Find the supernet NID and the supernet mask for
the given addresses?
---199.10.5.0/24
---199.10.6.0/24
---199.10.7.0/24
4. Supernetting and CIDR
Ex#2 how to advertise routes to the corporate network (ISP)
1.Find the new network ID or aggregated network ID to be
advertised(supernet NID)?
2.What is the new network mask/supernet mask?
3.What is the CIDR or /notation value for the new network?
4. Supernetting and CIDR
Ex#3 find supernet NID, supernet Mask and CIDR value
for your supernet network.
192.92.241.0/24
192.92.242.0/24
192.92.243.0/24
192.92.244.0/24
192.92.245.0/24
192.92.246.0/24
192.92.247.0/24
Limitations of route Summarization
There are two main limitations of route aggregation:
Suboptimal routing. Misconfigured route summarization may result in
suboptimal routing. Route summarization may also create inconsistent routing
if a network has noncontiguous subnetworks. When using summaries, the
router may prefer another path where it has learned a more specific network
form, which may not be the most optimal routing method.

Forwarding traffic for unused networks. If the router doesn't find a matching
destination in its routing table, it will start dropping traffic, leading to data
loss. Also, the summary route may cover unused networks. The router that has
a summary route will forward traffic to the router that advertised the
summary route.

To avoid suboptimal or incorrect routing and to prevent routers from

inaccurately advertising networks or duplicating other routers'
advertisements, it's important to design networks with summarization in mind.
Advance planning and leaving room for future network growth can help with
the design of a scalable network that supports route summarization.
5. Private IP addressing and NAT
Private IP addresses are those that cannot be advertised and
forwarded by network devices in the public domain.

NAT maps IP addresses between public and private spaces.

It is mainly used to use the same address in the private

organization and use NAT to communicate outside.

Example if organization A uses 10.1.1.5 and arenization B

uses also 10.1.1.5 internally it is possible. But when they try
to communicate with them selves org-A to org-B they need a
public address. Then the router hides the private address
and send via the public addresses then they proceed.
5. Private IP addressing and NAT
There are three styles NAT
1.Static NAT:-maps unregistered IP address to a registered
IP address on a one-one bases manually.
2.Dynamic NAT:-maps unregistered IP address to a
registered IP address from a group of registered IP
addresses. It has a pool of public addresses and assigns them
on a first com first served basis to the packets coming from
a particular host trying to connect the internet in an
organization.
3.NAT overload or PAT:-a form of dynamic NAT that maps
multiple unregistered IP addresses to a single registered IP
by using different ports. Known also PAT or single address
NAT or port level multiplexed NAT.
The three NAT styles example
Static NAT

Dynamic NAT
 The three NAT styles example
NAT overload

Ex. If src-IP=192.168.5.18 and destn-IP=74.12.23.46 are

packet addresses before NAT configuration then what is src
and dest address after NAT configuration?
IP v6 Addressing
p
IP v6 Addressing…..
p
IP v6 Addressing…..
p
Unicast Packets addressed to a unicast address are delivered to
a single interface, same as in IPv4. For load balancing, multiple
interfaces can use the same address.
Global unicast addresses These are your typical publicly
routable addresses, and they’re used the same way globally
unique addresses are in IPv4.
Link-local addresses These are like the private addresses in
IPv4 in that they’re not meant to be routed and are unique for
each link (LAN).
Unique local addresses These addresses are also intended for
non-routing purposes, but they are nearly globally unique
Multicast Again, as in IPv4, packets addressed to a multicast
address are delivered to all interfaces identified by the
multicast address.
Anycast Like multicast addresses, an anycast address identifies
multiple interfaces. One to closest addresses
Special IP v6 Addresses…
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 Equals ::. This is typically the source address of
a host when you’re using stateful configuration (DHCP).
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 Equals ::1. The equivalent of 127.0.0.1 in IPv4.
0:0:0:0:0:0:192.168.100.1 This is how an IPv4 address would be
written in a mixed IPv6/IPv4 network environment.
2000::/3 The global unicast address range.
FC00::/7 The unique local unicast range.
FE80::/10 The link-local unicast range.
FF00::/8 The multicast range.
3FFF:FFFF::/32 Reserved for examples and documentation.
2001:0DB8::/32 Also reserved for examples and
documentation.
2002::/16 Used with 6 to 4, which is the transition system-the
structure that allows IPv6 packets to be transmitted over an
IPv4 network without the need to configure explicit tunnels.
 Quiz #5%
1. Break down this network as per the needs given the fig below
For 201.16.3.0/24 net.

2. Find the supernet NID and the supernet mask for the given
addresses show all the steps?
---192.168.10.0/24
---192.168.11.0/24
---192.168.12.0/24
---192.168.13.0/24
---192.168.14.0/24
3. Write out the complete unabbreviated IPv6 addresses that
correspond to 6721:0:4a::ce1:0 and ff2c:37bd::2:c9:ce1:7a. Are
either of these a multicast address? If so, which one?
 Sec#2. Routing Fundamentals
Routing Basics
Selecting Routing Protocols for the Network Project
IP routing is the process of moving packets from one network to
another network using routers.
What is the difference b/n routing protocol & Routed protocol?
A routing protocol is a tool used by routers to dynamically find
all the networks in the internetwork as well as to ensure that all
routers have the same routing table.
A routing protocol used to determine the path of a packet
through an internetwork.
Routed protocols are assigned to an interface and determine the
method of packet delivery.
A routed protocol can be used to send user data (packets)
through the established internetwork.
 Sec#2. Routing Fundamentals
.
 Routing Basics
To be capable of routing packets, a router must know at
least the following information:
Destination address
Neighbor routers
Possible routes to all remote networks
The best route to each remote network
How routers build a routing table?

69
Routing basics…
The router learns about remote networks from
neighbor routers or from an administrator.
The router then builds a routing table (a map of the
internetwork) that describes how to find the remote
networks.
If a network is directly connected, then the router
already knows how to get to it.
If a network isn’t directly connected to the router, the
router must use one of 2 ways to learn how to get to it.
One way is called static routing and the other way is
dynamic routing.
Difference b/n static vs dynamic routing?
Routing protocols
Routing flow tree
 Routing protocols
Routing protocols are critical to a network’s design.
Static routing: The reachability is entered manually to the
router.
Method we commonly use for our small networking labs.

Dynamic routing is more typical of a real network design.

It discover networks&update routing tables dynamically by
itself
Typical routing protocols are: EIGRP, OSPF, RIPv1, RIPv2, IS-
IS, BGP.

Routing metrics
---Hop counts, MTU, bandwidth, Costs, Latency
IPv6 Routing Protocols
Most of the routing protocols we’ve already discussed have
been upgraded for use in IPv6 networks.

Also, many of the functions and configurations that we’ve

already learned will be used in almost the same way as they’re
used now.
IP v6 routing protocols
RIPng
EIGRPv6
OSPFv3
 Selecting and applying routing protocols
There are some recommendations for choosing and applying
routing protocols for your network project.
They were developed to simplify the application of routing
protocols whenever possible.
These recommendations are:
1.Minimize the number of routing protocols used in the network.
Two should be the maximum number of protocols allowed, with
only one IGP. Don’t overcomplicate the routing architecture by
applying too many routing protocols.
2.Start with the simplest routing strategy and routing
mechanism/protocol.
3.As the complexity in routing and choices of routing protocols
increase, reevaluate the previous decisions.
Selecting routing protocols….
Recommendation 3 may be extended to state:
3a. When static routes have previously been chosen, and
RIP/RIPv2 has been chosen as the routing protocol for
another area of the network, then RIP/RIPv2 replaces
static routes for those areas where static routes were
chosen.
3b. When RIP/RIPv2 has previously been chosen, and
OSPF has been chosen as the routing protocol for
another area of the network, then OSPF replaces
RIP/RIPv2 for those areas where RIP/RIPv2 was chosen.
3c. BGP, when required for a backbone network, may
replace OSPF or RIP/RIPv2 if either had been
previously chosen for the backbone.
Sec#3. Network Management
Network management is the process of controlling a
complex data network to maximize its efficiency and
productivity.
The overall goal of network management is to help with
the complexity of a data network and to ensure that data
can go across it with maximum efficiency and
transparency to the users.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Network Management Forum divided network management
into five functional areas:
1. Fault Management
2. Configuration Management
3. Security Management
4. Performance Management
5. Accounting Management
1. Fault management
Is the process of locating problems, or faults, on the data
network
It involves the following steps:
1. Discover the problem
2. Isolate the problem
3. Fix the problem (if possible)

 Detect, isolate and correct malfunctions in a

telecommunication networks
 Tracing and identifying faults, Correcting faults
 Reporting error conditions
 Localizing and tracing faults by examining and
manipulating database information. 77
2. Configuration management

The configuration of certain network devices

controls the behavior of the data network
Configuration management is the process of finding
and setting up (configuring) these critical devices

Recording and updating information that describes

internetworks hardware and software.

78
3. Security management

Is the process of controlling access to information on

the data network

Provides a way to monitor access points and records

information on a periodic basis

Provides audit trails and sounds alarms for security

breaches

79
4. Performance management
Involves measuring the performance of the
network hardware, software, and media.
Examples of measured activities are:
Overall throughput
Percentage utilization
Error rates
Response time

80
5. Accounting management

Involves tracking individual’s utilization and

grouping of network resources to ensure that
users have sufficient resources

Involves granting or removing permission for

access to the network

81
 What is Network Management Software
Network Management Software is software that allows
an administrator to manage a network and the devices
attached to the network.

Network Management Software may perform functions

such as monitoring and reporting on data transmission
or tracking the health of routers and switches.

Network management software aims to help an

administrator maintain the health of a network.
Example
What network management tools or software's have you
used or saw during your summer practical attachment?
For what purpose do you use it?
How that network management is important for the
company?
Why do we monitor our network?
why enterprises invest in network management and
monitoring tools or software's?
 Example
Network management and monitoring tools are software platforms that
connect with network components and other IT systems to measure,
analyze, and report on network topology, performance, and health.
top 10 tools you can deploy in 2022.
1.PRTG Network Monitor
2.SolarWinds Network Performance Monitor
3.Auvik
4.Domotz
5.Datadog Network Performance Monitoring
6.Entuity
7.ManageEngine OpManager
8.Nagios XI
9.Spiceworks Connectivity Dashboard
10.WhatsUp Gold
Network monitoring tools
What is network monitoring?
A subset of network management task, monitoring
tracks your network activity for anomalies.
Performed on a dedicated system
Executed from command line or GUI applications
Network monitoring/troubleshooting tools

85
Network monitoring tools
Network monitoring tools….

86
Network monitoring tools
u

87
 End
Thank You