LECTURE # 21

First of all instead of giving the definition of Recursion we give you an

example, you already know the Set of Odd numbers Here we give the new
definition of the same set that is the set of Odd numbers.
Definition for odd positive integers may be given as:
BASE:
1 is an odd positive integer.
RECURSION:
If k is an odd positive integer, then k + 2 is an
odd positive integer.
Now, 1 is an odd positive integer by the definition base.
With k = 1, 1 + 2 = 3, so 3 is an odd positive integer.
With k = 3, 3 + 2 = 5, so 5 is an odd positive integer
and so, 7, 9, 11, … are odd positive integers.
REMARK: Recursive definitions can be used in a “generative”
manner.
RECURSION
The process of defining an object in terms of smaller versions of itself is
called recursion.
A recursive definition has two parts:
1. BASE
an initial simple definition which cannot be expressed in terms
of smaller versions of itself.
2. RECURSION
the part of definition which can be expressed in terms of smaller
versions of itself. 1
 RECURSIVELY DEFINED FUNCTIONS

A function is said to be recursively defined if the function refers to itself

such that
1. There are certain arguments, called base values, for which the
function does not refer to itself.
2. Each time the function does refer to itself, the argument of

the function must be closer to a base value.

EXAMPLE

Suppose that f is defined recursively by

f(0) = 3
f(n + 1) = 2 f (n) + 3
Find f(1), f(2), f(3) and f(4)
SOLUTION
From the recursive definition it follows that
f(1) = 2 f(0) + 3 = 2(3) + 3 = 6 + 3 = 9
In evaluating of f(1) we use the formula given in the example and we note
that it involves f(0) and we are also given the value of that which we use to
find out the functional value at 1. Similarly we will use the preceding value
In evaluating the next values of the functions as we did below.
f(2) = 2 f(1) + 3 = 2(9) + 3 = 18 + 3 = 21
f(3) = 2 f(2) + 3 = 2(21) + 3 = 42 + 3 = 45
f(4) = 2 f(3) + 3 = 2(45) + 3 = 90 + 3 = 93

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 EXERCISE

Find f(2), f(3), and f(4) if f is defined recursively by

f(0) = -1, f(1)=2 and for n = 1, 2, 3, …
f(n+1) = f(n) + 3 f(n - 1)
SOLUTION
From the recursive definition it follows that
f(2) = f(1) + 3 f (1-1)
= f(1) + 3 f (0)
= 2 + 3 (-1)
= -1

Now in order to find out the other values we will need the values of the
preceding .So we write these values here again
f(0) = -1, f(1)=2 f(n+1) = f(n) + 3 f(n - 1)
f(2) = -1

By recursive formula we have

f(3) = f(2) + 3 f (2-1)
= f(2) + 3 f (1)
= (-1) + 3 (2)
=5
f(4) = f(3) + 3 f (3-1)
= f(2) + 3 f (2)
= 5 + 3 (-1)
3
=2
 THE FACTORIAL OF A POSITIVE INTEGER

For each positive integer n, the factorial of n denoted n! is defined to be the

product of all the integers from 1 to n:
n! = n·(n - 1)·(n - 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
Zero factorial is defined to be 1
0! = 1
EXAMPLE:
0! = 1 1! = 1
2! = 2·1 = 2 3! = 3·2·1 = 6
4! = 4·3·2·1 = 24 5! = 5·4·3·2·1 = 120
6! = 6·5·4·3·2·1= 720 7! = 7·6·5·4·3·2·1= 5040
REMARK
5! = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 5 ·(4 · 3 · 2 · 1)
= 5 · 4!
In general,
n! = n(n-1)! for each positive integer n.
THE FACTORIAL FUNCTION DEFINED RECURSIVELY

We can define the factorial function F(n) = n! recursively by specifying the

initial value of this function, namely, F(0) = 1, and giving a rule for finding
F(n) from F(n-1).{(n! = n(n-1)!}
Thus, the recursive definition of factorial function F(n) is:
1.F(0) = 1
2.F(n) = n F(n-1) 4
 EXERCISE
Let S be the function such that S(n) is the sum of the first n positive
integers. Give a recursive definition of S(n).
SOLUTION
The initial value of this function may be specified as S(0) = 0
Since
S(n) = n + (n - 1) + (n - 2) + … + 3 + 2 + 1
= n + [(n - 1) + (n - 2) + … + 3 + 2 + 1]
= n + S(n-1)
which defines the recursive step.
Accordingly S may be defined as:
1. S(0)= 0 2. S(n) = n + S(n - 1) for n  1

EXERCISE

Let a and b denote positive integers. Suppose a function Q is defined

recursively as follows:

 0 if a b
Q ( a, b)  
Q(a  b, b)  1 if b  a
(a) Find the value of Q(2,3) and Q(14,3)
(b) What does this function do? Find Q (3355, 7)
SOLUTION
(a) Q (2,3) = 0 since 2 < 3

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 Given Q(a,b) = Q(a-b,b) + 1 if b a
Now
Q (14, 3) = Q (11,3) + 1
= [Q(8,3) + 1] + 1 = Q(8,3) + 2
= [Q(5,3) + 1] + 2 = Q(5,3) + 3
= [Q(2,3) + 1] + 3 = Q(2,3) + 4
=0+4 ( Q(2,3) = 0)
=4
(b)
0 if a b
Q ( a, b)  
Q(a  b, b)  1 if b  a
Each time b is subtracted from a, the value of Q is increased by 1. Hence
Q(a,b) finds the integer quotient when a is divided by b.
Thus Q(3355, 7) = 479

THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

The Fibonacci sequence is defined as follows.

F0 = 1, F1 = 1
Fk = Fk – 1 + Fk – 2 for all integers k  2

F2 = F1 + F0 = 1 + 1 = 2
F3 = F2 + F1 = 2 + 1 = 3
F4 = F3 + F2 = 3 + 2 = 5
F5 = F4 + F3 = 5 + 3 = 8
.
.
6
.
 RECURRENCE RELATION

A recurrence relation for a sequence a0, a1, a2, . . . , is a formula that relates
each term ak to certain of its predecessors ak – 1, ak – 2, . . . , ak – i ,

where i is a fixed integer and k is any integer greater than or equal to i. The
initial conditions for such a recurrence relation specify the values of
a0 , a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a i – 1 .
EXERCISE

Find the first four terms of the following recursively defined sequence.
b1 = 2
bk = bk – 1 + 2 · k, for all integers k  2

SOLUTION
b1 = 2 (given in base step)
b2 = b1 + 2 · 2 = 2 + 4 = 6
b3 = b2 + 2 · 3 = 6 + 6 = 12
b4 = b3 + 2 · 4 = 12 + 8 = 20
Find the first five terms of the following recursively defined
sequence.
t0 = – 1, t1 = 1
tk = t k – 1 + 2 · t k – 2 , for all integers k  2

SOLUTION

t0 = – 1, (given in base step)

t1 = 1 (given in base step)
t2 = t1 + 2 · t0 = 1 + 2 · (–1) = 1 – 2 = –1
t3 = t2 + 2 · t1 = –1 + 2 · 1 = –1 + 2 = 1
t4 = t3 + 2 · t2 = 1 + 2 · (–1) = 1 – 2 = –1 7
 EXERCISE
Define a sequence b0, b1, b2, . . . by the formula

b n = 5 n, for all integers n  0.

Show that this sequence satisfies the recurrence relation b k = 5bk – 1, for all
integers k  1.

SOLUTION
The sequence is given by the formula
bn = 5n
Substituting k for n we get
bk = 5k . . . . . (1)
Substituting k – 1 for n we get
bk – 1 = 5k – 1 . . . . . (2)
Multiplying both sides of (2) by 5 we obtain
5 · bk – 1 = 5 · 5k – 1
= 5k = bk using (1)
Hence bk = 5bk – 1 as required
EXERCISE
Show that the sequence 0, 1, 3, 7, . . . , 2 n – 1, . . . , for n  0, satisfies the
recurrence relation
dk = 3dk – 1 – 2dk – 2, for all integers k  2
SOLUTION
The sequence is given by the formula
dn = 2n – 1 for n  0
Substituting k – 1 for n we get dk – 1 = 2k – 1 – 1
Substituting k – 2 for n we get dk – 2 = 2k – 2 – 1
We want to prove that
dk = 3dk – 1 – 2dk – 2
R.H.S. = 3(2k – 1 – 1) – 2(2k – 2 – 1)
= 3 · 2k – 1 – 3 – 2 · 2 k – 2 + 2
= 3 · 2k – 1 – 2k – 1 – 1 8
= (3 – 1) · 2k – 1 – 1
= 2 · 2k – 1 – 1 = 2k – 1 = d = L.H.S.
 THE TOWER OF HANOI

The puzzle was invented by a French Mathematician Adouard Lucas in 1883.

It is well known to students of Computer Science since it appears in virtually
any introductory text on data structures or algorithms.
There are three poles on first of which are stacked a number of disks that
decrease in size as they rise from the base. The goal is to transfer all the disks
one by one from the first pole to one of the others, but they must never place a
larger disk on top of a smaller one.
Let mn be the minimum number of moves needed to move a tower of n disks
from one pole to another. Then mn can be obtained recursively as follows.

•m1 = 1
•mk = 2 mk – 1 + 1
m2 = 2 · m1 + 1 = 2 · 1 + 1 = 3
m3 = 2 · m2 + 1 = 2 · 3 + 1 = 7
m4 = 2 · m3 + 1 = 2 · 7 + 1 = 15
m5 = 2 · m4 + 1 = 2 · 15 + 1 = 31
m6 = 2 · m5 + 1 = 2 · 31 + 1 = 65

Note that
mn = 2n – 1
m64 = 264 – 1
 584.5 billion years

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 USE OF RECURSION

At first recursion may seem hard or impossible, maybe magical at best.

However, recursion often provides elegant, short algorithmic solutions to
many problems in computer science and mathematics.
Examples where recursion is often used
•math functions
•number sequences
•data structure definitions
•data structure manipulations
•language definitions

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