Unit-II

Ecosystem, Biodiversity and Its Conservation

Table of content
• Ecosystem - concept –
• structure and function - producers, consumers and decomposers –
• Food chain –
• Ecological pyramids –
• Energy flow –
• Forest, Grassland, desert and aquatic ecosystem.
• Biodiversity - Definition - Types –
• Values and uses of biodiversity - biodiversity at global, national (India) and local levels –
• Conservation of biodiversity – In-situ & Ex-situ.
Concept of Ecosystem
• Ernst Haeckel (1866) defined ecology “as the body of knowledge concerning the
economy of nature-the investigation of the total relations of animal to its inorganic and
organic environment. Frederick Clements (1916) considered ecology to be “the science of
community.
• At present ecological studies are made at Eco-system level. At this level the units of study
are quite large. This approach has the view that living organisms and their non-living
environment are inseparably interrelated and interact with each other. A.G. Tansley (in
1935) defined the Eco-system as ‘the system resulting from the integrations of all the
living and non-living actors of the environment’. Thus, he regarded the Eco-systems as
including only the organism complex but also the whole complex of physical factors
forming the environment.
• The idea of Eco-system is quite an old one. We find in literature some such parallel terms
as (i) biocoenosis (Karl Mobius, 1977), (ii) microcosm (S.A. Forbes, 1887), (iv) hlocoen
(Frienderichs, 1930), (v) biosystem (Thienemann, 1939), (vi) bioenert body (Vernadsky,
1994), and ecosom etc. use for such ecological systems. The terms ecosystems is most
preferred, where ‘eco’ implies the environment, and ‘system’ implies an interacting, inter-
dependent complex.
Aspects of Eco-system
The eco-system can be defined as an organizational unit including living organisms and non-living
substances interacting to produce an exchange of materials between the living and non-living parts.
The eco-system can be studied from either structural or functional aspects.
1. Structural Aspect
The structural aspects of ecosystem include a description of the arrangement, types and numbers of
species and their life histories, along with a description of the physical features of the environment.
2. Functional Aspect
The functional aspects of the ecosystem include the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients.
Structure of Eco-system
Meaning of Structure
By structure of an eco-system we mean as under.
(i) The composition of biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history and
distribution in space etc.
(ii) The quantity and distribution of the non-living materials, such as nutrients, water etc.
(iii) Structure of an ecosystem the range, or gradient of conditions of existence, such as temperature.
Natural And Function of Structure of Eco-system
The structure of an ecosystem is in fact, a description of the species of organisms that are present,
including information on their life histories, population and distribution in space. It guides us to know
who’s who in the ecosystem. It also includes descriptive information on the non-living features of
ecosystem give us information about the range of climatic conditions that prevail in the area. From
structural point of view all ecosystems consist of following two basic components:
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1. Abiotic Substances (Non-Living Components)
• The Abiotic substances include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the environment or
habitat of the organism.
• (a) Inorganic Components: The inorganic components of an ecosystem are as under: carbon
dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphate. All of these are involved in matter cycles
(biogeochemical cycles).
• (b) Organic Components: The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates;
lipids and amino acids, all of these are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an ecosystem
and are reached to ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains, etc.
• (c) The climate, temperature, light, soil etc., are other abiotic components of the eco-system.
2. Biotic Substances (Living Components):
This is indeed the trophic structure of any ecosystem, where living organisms are distinguished on the
basis of their nutritional relationships. From this trophic (nutritional) standpoint, an ecosystem has two
components:
(a) Autotrophic Component of Producers

These are the components in which fixation of light energy use of simple inorganic substances and
build up of complex substance predominate.
• (i) The component is constituted mainly by green plants, including photosynthetic bacteria.
• (ii) To some lesser extent, chemosynthetic microbes also contribute to the build up of organic
matter.
• (iii) Members of the autotrophic component are known as eco-system producers because they
capture energy from non-organic sources, especially light, and store some of the energy in the form
of chemical bonds, for the later use.
• (iv) Algae of various types are the most important producers of aquatic eco-systems, although in
estuaries and marshes, grasses may be important as producers.
• (v) Terrestrial ecosystems have trees, herbs, grasses, and mosses
b) Heterotrophic Component or
Consumers
These are the components in which utilization; rearrangement and decomposition of complex
materials predominate. The organisms involved are known as consumers, as they consume
autotrophic organisms like bacterial and algae for their nutrition, the amount of energy that the
producers capture, sets the limit on the availability of energy for the ecosystem. Thus, when a green
plant captures a certain amount of energy from sunlight, it is said to produce the energy for the
ecosystem. The consumers are further categorized as:
(i) Macroconsumers
Marco consumers are the consumers, which in an order as they occur in a food chain are, herbivores,
carnivores (or omnivores).
(a) Herbivores are also known as primary consumers.
(b) Secondary and tertiary consumers, if present, are carnivores or omnivores. They all phagotrophs
that include mainly animals that ingest other organic and particulate organic matter.
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(ii) Microconsumers
These are popularly known as decomposers. They are saprotrophs (=osmotrophs) they include
mainly bacteria and fungi. They breakdown complex compounds of dead or living protoplasm, they
absorb some of the decomposition or breakdown products. Besides, they release inorganic nutrients
in environment, making them available again to autotrophs. The biotic component of any ecosystem
may be thought of as the functional kingdom of nature. The reason is, they are based on the type of
nutrition and the energy source used. The trophic structure of an ecosystem is one kind of producer
consumer arrangement, where each “food” level is known as trophic level.
• Standing Corp
The amount of living material in different trophic levels or in a component population is known as the
standing corp. This term applies to both, plants as well as animals. The standing crop may be
expressed in terms
(i) Number of organisms per unit area,
(ii) Biomass i.e.organism mass in unit area, we can measure it as living weight, dry weight, ash-free
dry weight of carbon weight, or calories or any other convenient unit suitable.
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• Decomposers
In the absence of decomposers, no ecosystem could function long. In their absence, dead organisms would pile
up without rotting, as a waste products. It would not be long before and an essential element, phosphorus. for
example, would be first in short supply and then gone altogether, the reason is the dead corpses littering the
landscape would be hoarding the entire supply. The decomposers tear apart organisms and in their metabolic
processes release to the environment atoms and molecules that can be reused again by autotrophic point of view.
Instead, they are important from the material (nutrient) point of view. Energy cannot be recycled, but matter can
be. Hence it is necessary to feed Energy into ecosystem to keep up with the dissipation of heat or the increase in
entropy. Matter must be recycled again and again by an ecological process called biogeochemical cycle.
• An Illustration
The Structure of ecosystem can be illustrated as under with the help of ponds example.
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Abiotic Part
The abiotic or non-living parts of a freshwater pond include the following:
• (i) Water,
• (ii) Dissolved oxygen,
• (iii) Carbon Dioxide,
• (iv) Inorganic salts such as phosphates, nitrates and chlorides of sodium, potassium, and calcium
• (v) A multitude of organic compounds such as amino acids, humic acids, etc. according to the functions of the
organisms, i.e., their contribution towards keeping the ecosystem operating as a stable, interacting whole.
(a) Producers
In a freshwater pond there are two types of producers,
• (i) First are the larger plants growing along the shore or floating in shallow water.
• (ii) Second are the microscopic floating plants, most of which are algae. These tiny plants are collectively
referred to as phytoplankton. They are usually not visible. They are visible only when they are present in
great abundance and given the water a greenish tinge. Phytoplanktons are more significant as food producers
for the freshwater pond ecosystem than are the more readily visible plants.
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(b) Consumers
Among the macro consumers or phagotrophas of pond ecosystems include insects and insect larvae, fish and
perhaps some freshwater clams.
• (i) Primary Consumers: Primary consumers such as zooplankton (animal plankton) are found near the
surface of water. Likewise, benthos (bottom forms) are the plant eaters (herbivores).
• (ii) Secondary consumers: The secondary consumers are the carnivores that eat the primary consumers.
There might be some tertiary consumers that eat the carnivores (secondary consumers).
• Saprotrophs
The ecosystem is completed by saprotrophs or decomposer organisms such as bacteria, flagellage protozoans
and fungi, They break down the organic compounds of cells from dead producer and consumer organisms in any
of these ways-
• (i) Into small organic molecules, which they utilize themselves, or
• (ii) Inorganic substances that can be used as raw materials by green plants.
Food Chain of Food web
Food chain
•The food chain is an ideal representation of flow of energy in the ecosystem.
•In food chain, the plants or producers are consumed by only the primary consumers, primary consumers
are fed by only the secondary consumers and so on.
•The producers that are capable to produce their own food are called autotrophs.
•Any food chain consists of three main tropic levels, viz., producers, consumers and decomposers.
•The energy efficiency of each tropic level is very low. Hence, shorter the food chain greater will be the
accessibility of food.
• The typical food chain in a ground ecosystem proceeds as grass mouse
—————-> snake ————> hawk.
•Food webs are more complex and are interrelated at different tropic levels.
•Organisms have more than one choice for food and hence can survive better.
•Hawks don’t restrict their food to snakes, snakes eat animals other than mice, and mice eat grass as well
as grasshoppers, and so on.
•A more realistic illustration of feeding habits in an ecosystem is called a food web.
Food Web
• Charles Elton presented the food web concept in year 1927, which he termed as food cycle.
• A food web is a graphical depiction of feeding connections among species of an ecological
community.
• The web like structure if formed with the interlinked food chain and such matrix that is
interconnected is known as a food web.
• Food webs are an inseparable part of an ecosystem; these food webs permit an organism to obtain
food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic level.
• Every living being is responsible and is a part of multiple food chains in the given ecosystem.
• A food web is a graphical depiction of feeding connections among species of an ecological
community.
• Food web includes food chains of a particular ecosystem.
• The food web is an illustration of various techniques of feeding that links the ecosystem.
• The food web also explains the energy flow through species of a community as a result of their
feeding relationships.
• All the food chains are interconnected and overlapping within an ecosystem and they constitute a
food web.
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Species are related by their feeding behavior in food chains or food webs. There are two basic types of food
chains as under-
(i) The consumer food chain includes the sequence of energy flow from
producer+herbivore+carnivore+reducer;
(ii) The detritus food chain bypasses the consumers, going from producer+ reducer.
• Basic Theme of Ecosystems
(1) Relationship
• The first and foremost theme of an ecosystem in that everything is somehow or other related to everything
else, the relationships include interlocking functioning of organisms among themselves besides with their
environment. Biocoenosis and bioecocoenois are roughly equivalent to community and ecosystem
respectively. Biotopes are the physical environment in which such communities exist. According to Lamotte
(1969), it is this network of multiple interactions that permits us to define the ecosystem completely. Many
ecologists regard Interdependence as the first basic theme of ecology. Ecosystem includes interacting and
interdependent components that are open and linked to each other.
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(2) Limitation
The second basis theme is Limitation which means that limits are ubiquitous and that no individual or species
goes on growing indefinitely. Various species control and limit their own growth in response to overcrowding or
other environmental signals and the total numbers keep pace with the resources available.
(3) Complexity
Complexity is a third characteristic of any eco-system. The three-dimensional interactions of the various
constituent elements of an ecosystem are highly complex and often beyond the comprehension on the human
brain.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The graphical representation of the relationship between various living beings at various trophic levels
within a food chain is called an ecological pyramid. The main characteristic of each type of Ecosystem
in Trophic structure, i.e. the interaction of food chain and the size metabolism relationship between the
linearly arranged various biotic components of an ecosystem. We can show the trophic structure and
function at successive trophic levels, as under:-

It may be known by means of ecological pyramids. In this pyramid the first or producer level constitutes
the base of the pyramid. The successive levels, the three make the apex.
Ecological pyramids are of three general types as under:
(i) Pyramid of numbers: It shows the number of individual organisms at each level,
(ii) Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic
levels.
(iii) Pyramid of Biomass: It shows the rate of biomass and/or productivity at successive trophic levels.
The first two pyramids
It is the pyramid of numbers and biomass may be upright or inverted. It depends upon the nature of
the food chain in the particular ecosystem; However, the pyramids of energy are always up-right. A
brief description of these pyramids is as under:
1. Pyramids of numbers
The pyramids of numbers show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels in terms or their numbers.
(i) In a grassland the producers, which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number.
(ii) This number shows a decrease towards apex, the reason is obvious, number than the grasses.
(iii) The secondary consumers, snakes and lizards are less in number than the rabbits and mice.
(iv) In the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are least in number.
In this way the pyramid becomes upright. In a pond ecosystem, also the pyramid is upright as under:
(i) The producers, which are mainly the phyto-planktons as algae, bacteria etc. are maximum in
number;
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• ii) The herbivores, which are smaller fish; rotifers etc are less in number than the producers;
• (iii) The secondary consumers (carnivores), such as small fish which eat up each other, water beetles etc. are
less in number than the herbivores;
• (iv) Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the bigger fish are least in number. However, the case is not so in a
forest eco-system.
The pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape:—
• (i) Producer, here the producers, are mainly large-sized trees, they are less in number, and form the base of
the pyramid.
• (ii) The herbivores, which are the fruit-eating birds, elephants, deer etc. are more in number than the
producers.
• (iii) Thereafter there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores.
• In this way the pyramid is made again upright. However, in a parasites food chain the pyramids are inverted.
This is for the reason that a single plant may support the growth of many herbivores. In its turn, each
herbivore may provide nutrition to several parasites, which support many hyperparasites. Consequently, from
the producer towards consumers, there is a reverse position. In other words, the number of organisms
gradually shows an increase, making the pyramid inverted in shape.
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2. Pyramids of biomass
• The pyramids of biomass are comparatively more fundamentalism; as the reason is they instead of
geometric factor; show the quantitative relationships of the standing crops. The pyramids of
biomass in different types of ecosystem may be compared as under:
• In grassland and forest there is generally a gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive
levels from the producers to the top carnivores. In this way, the pyramids are upright. However, in a
pond the producers are small organisms, their biomass is least, and this value gradually shows an
increase towards the apex of the pyramid and the pyramids are made inverted in shape.
3. Pyramid of energy
• The energy pyramid gives the best picture of overall nature of the ecosystem. Here, number and
weight of organisms at any level depends on the rate at which food is being produced. If we
compare the pyramid of energy with the pyramids of numbers and biomass, which are pictures of
the standing situations (organisms present at any moment), the pyramid of energy is a picture of the
rates of passage of food mass through the food chain. It is always upright in shape.
Energy Flow in Ecosystem
• Energy-Defined
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work, whether that work be on a gross scale as raising
mountains and moving air masses over continents, or on a small scale such as transmitting a nerve
impulse from one cell to another.
• Kinds of Energy
There are two kinds of energy, potential and kinetic. They can be explained as under:-
1. Potential Energy
• Potential energy is energy at rest. It is capable and available for work.
2. Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy is due to motion, and results in work. Work that results from the expenditure of
energy can be of two kinds:
(1) It can store energy (as potential energy).
(2) It can order matter without storing energy.
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(3) Laws of Thermodynamics
• The expenditure and storage of energy is described by two laws of thermodynamics:-
• (i) Law of conservation of energy: The law of conservation of energy states that
• energy is neither created nor destroyed. It may change forms, pass from one place to another, or
act upon matter in various ways. In this process no gain or loss in total energy occurs. Energy is
simply transferred from one form or place to another.
• (ii) Second Law of Thermodynamics
• In the second law, it is stated that during the transformation, a portion of the energy is dissipated
into the surroundings as heat energy.
 Flow of Energy in an
Ecosystem
• Animals can use energy in two forms: Radiant and fixed energy.
Radiant energy is the framework of electromagnetic waves, such as
light. Fixed energy is potential chemical energy tied up in different
organic substances which can be injured in order to discharge their
energy content.
• Organisms that can fix radiant energy can take advantage of
inorganic substances to produce organic molecules are called
autotrophs. Organisms that cannot obtain energy from an abiotic
source but depend on energy-rich organic molecules synthesized by
autotrophs are called heterotrophs. Those who obtain energy from
living organisms are called consumers, and those who obtain
energy from dead animals are called decomposers.
• When the light energy spill on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is
converted into chemical energy, which is kept in various organic products
in the green plants, when the herbivores eat plants as food and transform
energy into chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic
energy, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion into
hotness. When herbivores are eaten up by carnivores of the foremost order
(secondary consumers), further degradation will occur. Similarly, when
primary carnivores are fed by top carnivores, again energy will be
degraded.
Trophic Level
• The producers and consumers in an
environment can be organized into several
feeding groups, each known as trophic
level (feeding level).
1.Producers represent the first trophic level.
2.Herbivores represent the second trophic
level.
3.Primary carnivores represent the third
trophic level.
4.Top carnivores represent the last level.
Energy Flow Models
• For a better understanding of the energy flow concept in an ecosystem, there are two types of
energy flow models.
1. Single-channel Energy Flow Model
2. Y-shaped or 2-channel Energy Flow Model

• 1. Single-channel Energy Flow Model

a. This model illustrates the unidirectional flow of energy.
b. Whatever the energy captured by the green plants does not revert back to solar input. As it moves
progressively through the various trophic levels, it is no longer applicable to the previous level.
c. The system would crash if the primary source, the sun, were cut off.
d. There is a progressive decline in energy level at each trophic level. So, the shorter the food chain,
the greater would be the available food energy.
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Y-shaped or 2-channel Energy Flow Model
• a. It is applicable to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In this energy model, one arm
represents the herbivore food chain and the other arm represents the decomposer (detritus) food
chain.
• b. The primary producers (green plants) are entirely different for each arm. This model also
indicates that two food chains are in fact, under natural conditions, not completely isolated from one
another.
• (i) It conforms to the basic stratified structure of an ecosystem.
• (ii) It separates the eating and detritus food chains in both time and space.
• (iii) Micro consumers and macro consumers differ greatly in size and metabolic relations.
 Types of
Ecosystem
Types of Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems refer to all such ecosystems that are primarily located on or inside water bodies.
The nature and characteristics of all living and non-living organisms in the aquatic system are
determined based on the environment surrounding their ecosystem. Organisms in these ecosystems
interact with other organisms in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
• The aquatic ecosystem is mainly sub-divided into the following types:
Freshwater Ecosystem
• The freshwater ecosystem is one of the essential ecosystems for humans and other organisms
living on land. This is because this ecosystem is a source of drinking water. Additionally, it also helps
in providing the necessary energy and water for transportation, recreation, etc.
• Freshwater ecosystems mainly include lentic, lotic, and wetlands.
• Lentic: Water bodies that are moving slowly or are still in some places come under lentic. For
example, ponds, lakes, pools, etc. Lakes are known as large water bodies and are surrounded by
land.
• Lotic: Water bodies that are moving at a fast pace fall under a lotic. For example, streams and
rivers.
• Wetlands: Environments characterized by soils saturated with water for a long time fall under
wetlands.
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• The freshwater ecosystem is the smallest type of ecosystem among the major types of ecosystems.
There is usually no salt content in the freshwater ecosystem. Besides, it consists of many insects,
small fish, amphibians, and various plant species. Plants help provide oxygen through
photosynthesis and also provide food for the organisms living in this ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
• Marine ecosystems are usually characterized by the presence of salt content. These ecosystems
have a higher salt content than the freshwater ecosystem. Moreover, they are known as the largest
type of ecosystem on Earth. It usually includes all the oceans and their parts. Besides, marine
ecosystems have a distinctive flora and fauna, which support greater biodiversity than freshwater
ecosystems. This type of ecosystem is essential for both marine and terrestrial environments.
• In particular, this ecosystem includes salt marshes, lagoons, coral reefs, estuaries, intertidal zones,
mangroves, seafloor, and deep seas. Salt marshes, mangrove forests, and sea-grass meadows are
said to be among the most productive ecosystems. Coral reefs are known to provide adequate
quantities of food and shelter to most marine inhabitants worldwide.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Terrestrial ecosystem refers to all such ecosystems which are mainly located on land. Although the
presence of water in these ecosystems is measured, they are entirely land-based and exist on land.
More specifically, a low and sufficiently needed amount of water is located in terrestrial ecosystems.
The low amount of water separates these ecosystems from aquatic ecosystems. Besides, terrestrial
ecosystems typically have temperature fluctuations in both seasonal and diurnal climates. It is also
a specific factor that makes these ecosystems different from aquatic ecosystems in similar
environments.
• Furthermore, the availability of light is somewhat higher in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic
ecosystems. The reason for this is that the climate in the land is relatively more transparent than
water. Due to entirely different light availability and temperature in terrestrial ecosystems, they have
diverse flora and fauna. Terrestrial ecosystems include various ecosystems distributed around
different geological zones.
• Terrestrial ecosystem is further classified into four types:
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Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem where many organisms live together with the environment's
abiotic components. There are much different flora and fauna in this ecosystem. This usually means
that the forest ecosystem has a high density of living organisms that live with non-living abiotic
elements. The forest ecosystem usually includes various plants, microorganisms, animals, and other
species.
• Forests are significant carbon sinks and participate in controlling and balancing the overall
temperature of the Erath. Changes in the forest ecosystem affect the entire ecological balance, and
severe changes or destruction of forests can also kill the whole ecosystem. Forests are generally
classified into tropical deciduous forests, tropical evergreen forests, temperate deciduous forests,
temperate forests, and Taig.
Grassland Ecosystems
• Grassland ecosystems are referred to as those ecosystems where the number of trees is low. These
ecosystems mainly consist of grasses, shrubs, and herbs. That means grasses are the primary
vegetation in these ecosystems, along with legumes that typically belong to the composite family.
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• Grassland ecosystems are commonly situated in both the tropical and temperate regions globally;
however, they have distinct variations. Examples of these ecosystems include the savanna
grasslands and temperate grasslands. They are home to various grazing animals, insectivores, and
herbivores.
Mountain Ecosystems
• As the name suggests, the mountain ecosystem is characterized by mountainous regions where the
climate is usually cold, and rainfall is low. Due to these climate changes, these ecosystems have a
wide variety of habitats where various animal and plant species are found. The high altitude areas of
mountainous regions have a cold and harsh climate. This is the reason why only treeless alpine
vegetation is found in these ecosystems. Animals found in these ecosystems usually have tick fur
coats to protect them from cold climates.
• Besides, mainly coniferous trees exist on the lower slopes of the mountains. Examples of mountain
ecosystems include mountain tops in Arctic regions. They are covered with snow for most of the
year.
Desert Ecosystem
• Desert ecosystems exist worldwide and cover about 17 percent of desert areas. These are areas
where annual rainfall is usually measured less than 25 mm. Due to fewer trees and land of sand,
sunlight intensifies in these ecosystems. This is why these ecosystems have incredibly high
temperatures and low availability of water. However, the nights are quite cold.
• The Desert ecosystem has unique flora and fauna. Plants grow with small amounts of water and
conserve water's possible amount in their leaves and stems. For example, the spiny-leafed cactus is
a type of desert plant that has the characteristic of storing water using a stem. Similarly, animals are
also adopted to the condition of desert ecosystems. Some common animals are camels, reptiles, a
diverse range of insects and birds.
Biodiversity
• Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals,
bacteria, and fungi. While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich that many species have yet to be
discovered, many species are being threatened with extinction due to human activities,
putting the Earth’s magnificent biodiversity at risk.
• Today most of us live in a socially and technologically evolved society where our
exploitive potential and knowledge of nature has increased academically. The problem is
that our contact with it has diminished morally. It may have diminished to such an extent
as to be dangerous to us and to the nature itself.
• Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of plants, animals, insects and the
microorganisms inhabiting the earth either in the aquatic or the terrestrial habitats. The
human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this biodiversity for their very basic
needs of survival–food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor, rubber, leather, medicines and
several raw materials. This diversity’s the condition for the long-term sustainability of the
environment, continuity of life on earth and the maintenance of its integrity.
Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is generally described in terms of its 3 fundamental and hierarchically related levels of
biological organisms. These are-
• Genetic diversity
It includes the genetic variations within species, both among geographically separated populations
and among individuals within single population.
• Species diversity
It includes full range of species from micro organisms to giants and mammoth varieties of plants and
animals, e.g. single celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants, animals and fungi.
• Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the biological communities in which species live, exist and interact.
Values of Biodiversity
• Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services -
immediate as well as long term, material as well as spiritual and psychological - which are
vital to our well being. The values of the earth’s biological resources can broadly be
classified into-
• Direct Values
Consumptive and productive uses.
• Food Resources: Grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea-coffee, tobacco, liquor,
oil from plant resources; and meat, fish, egg, milk (and milk products), honey, etc. From
animal resources.
• Other Resources: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fiber, fertilizer,
wool, leather, paint, resin, wax, thatch. Ornamental plants, rubber, creams, silk, feathers,
decorative items, etc.
Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options for the future.
1. Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which provides the support system for species.
2. Pollination, gene flow, etc.
3. Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds.
4. Buffering from climatic extreme conditions such as flood and drought;
5. Soil production and protection from erosion;
6. Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
7. Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, organic wastes, pesticides, air and water
pollutants;
8. Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels;
9. Preserving recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, ethical and
historical values of natural environments.
Uses of Biodiversity
• (i) Consumptive Use. Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his’
dietary requirements. A major share of our food comes from domesticated crops and
animals. Still we derive major of food from wild species. A large section of human
population is dependent on food, which we gather from seas, and oceans that is
harvested from free roaming wild organisms. Seafood is rich in minerals and vitamins and
contains up to 60 percent of the protein. Unfortunately, deforestation, hunting and clearing
of forests, grazing and expansion of agricultural lands removes potentially valuable food
species and the wild ancestors of our domestic crops.
• (ii) Productive Use. Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests.
Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable
commercial products from forests. Herbs of medicinal value. Rattan, cane, sisal, rubber,
pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils are among the
products gathered in the wild form forest areas. Like Himalayan forests serve as a
storehouse of medicinal herbs, which are presently being used to cure many diseases.
Many wild species e.g. milkweeds, etc. are also being investigated as a source of rubber,
alkaloids, and other valuable organic chemicals.
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• (iii) Medicine. Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to tap
their potential for different ailment cure in the field of drug extraction e.g. Hippophae
rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides, they are being
cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ and ex-situ conservation
viz. Valley of flowers, Rohtang in Kullu, Lahu & Spiti Valley. Animal products are also
sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer
and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure regulators, anticoagulants, enzymes, and
hormones.
• (iv) Ecological Benefits. Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only put
“pressure on resources and pollute environment. Then what makes environment act as a
self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and self-cleanliness. To
answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities. The processes of soil
formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy
absorption, and management of biogeochemical and hydrological
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• are all beyond the scope of man’s control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes do this favor
to mankind by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also serve as a library of gene
pool. Wild species of plants and animals exercise control over disease-carrying organisms and in
suppressing pests. Food chain explains how nature keep a control over population of organisms
wherein organisms of small size and larger in number are consumed by organisms large in size and
smaller in number to next higher tropic level. Hence, preservation of natural areas and conservation
of wild species should be encouraged and practiced to restore the biological wealth.
• (v) Aesthetic Use. Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed man’s psyche.
Human society has evolved from his early habitat in the forests, which abounds in flora and fauna.
Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls him from socially and culturally an evolved
society, as tourist from far and wide places. Thousands of tourists visit national park, sanctuaries
and forests throughout the country and especially in mountainous areas. A glance of temperate
grasslands perhaps the most beautiful landscape pleases and comforts man. All domestic plants
have evolved from wild ancestors and food gathering is no longer a necessity for man but still
thousands enjoy hunting, fishing and other adventurous outdoor activities that involve wild species.
Such environment and playful exercise gives man an opportunity to renew his pioneer skills and be
at mental ease after leading a hectic day in today’s life. Man enjoys his surrounding by decorating it
with images of wild animals and plants.
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• (vi) Cultural Benefits. A particular species or community of organisms may have
emotional value for a group of people who feel that their identity is inextricable linked to
the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture. This may be
expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for access to wildlife. In
either case, we often place a high value on the preservation of certain wild species.
• (vii) Option Values. This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind,
sometime in future. The hunt for various species under the scope of biotechnology. is
already underway for finding solutions to various environmental problems. The
environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to fight
various disease viz., cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.
Biodiverisity at Global
• 1.Global Initiatives for Biodiversity Assessment The initiative for biodiversity assessment was
taken long back in 1991 with the UNEP Biodiversity Country Studies Project (consisting of bilateral
and Global Environmental Facility funded studies in developing countries) implemented in
cooperation with donor countries and UNDP. The preparation of it dates back to 1987. Nineteen
studies have been completed and several more are in the process of completion. The approach
from gene to ecosystem was initiated as a Research Agenda for Biodiversity, IUBS/SCOPE/
UNESCO, Paris (Sol brig, 1991). The agreed text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was
adopted by 101 governments in Nairobi in May 1992, signed by 159 governments and the European
Union at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de
Janeiro in June 1992. At present 174 governments is party to this convention. Apart from this Global
Biodiversity Strategy (1992), Global biodiversity; Status of the Earth’s Living Resources (1992),
Caring for the Earth; A Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991), Global Marine Biological Diversity: A
Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making (1993), Norway/UNEP Expert Conference
on Biodiversity (1993) and From Genes to Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity (1991)
are the milestones on the international biodiversity initiatives. Many more nations are engaged in
developing their own National Biodiversity Strategies. Global Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995)
estimates the total number of animal and plant species to be between 13 and 14 million. It further
records that so far only 1.75 million species have been described and studied. Ecosystem diversity
has not been even reasonably explored as yet. Hence, there seems to be wide gap of knowledge at
global, regional and local levels.
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• Till recent past biodiversity conservation was thought to be limited to saving genes,
species and habitats but the implementation revolutionary policies and more awareness
has led to the emergence of a framework based upon saving biodiversity, studying and
most importantly using it sustainable. Reforms in the field of forestry, agriculture,
technology, international trade agreement and watershed management is required.
Biodiversity is directly or indirectly related to masses (researchers, government agencies,
non-government agencies and private sectors) ‘at all levels of development. Since we
depend upon biodiversity our various activities can be linked to its usage and
conservation. Therefore, trade, economics, population, land tenure, intellectual property
rights and resource consumption & waste are all related to biodiversity conservation.
Hence, its sustainable use can be promoted through information, ethics, knowledge and
awareness.
Levels of Action
• Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their lies
common interest of masses. Most of the resources do not belong to an individual, a
nation or a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on the earth has
equal right over it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally 4 major steps have been
realized important at national, regional and local levels.
• (i) Global Environment Facility (GEF)
World bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year pilot basis.
The GEF is expected to commit $ 400 million for the biodiversity conservation issue.
• (ii) International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)
World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together with
more than 40 Governmental and non-Governmental organizations have prepared the
framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would serve mankind on a
more sustainable basis.
• (iii) Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the aegis of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth Summit at Brazil.
This was accomplished to workout a legal framework for—
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• Governing international financial support for biodiversity conservation,
• The identification of international conservation priorities and
• Technology transfer for conservation and use of biodiversity.
(iv) Agenda 21
Developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from a
variety of non-Governmental processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme—
AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues including biodiversity.
Biodiversity at National level
• INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
• Lying at the junction of Agro-tropical, Euro-Asian and the Indo-Malayan biogeography
realms, India is a country of vast biodiversity in the world and quite a significant one all over
the globe. In fact, it is among the twelve “Mega diversity” countries in the world. India is also
a “Vavilov” centre of high crop genetic diversity–so named after the Russian agro botanist
N.I. Vavilov who identified about eight such centres around the world in the 1950s.
• India, a mega-biodiversity country, while following the path of development, has been
sensitive to the needs of conservation. India’s strategies for conservation and sustainable
utilization of biodiversity in the past aimed at providing special status and protection to
biodiversity rich areas by declaring them as national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves, ecologically fragile and sensitive areas. It has helped in reducing pressure from
reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction. by a
forestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of ex-suit conservation facilities such
as gene banks and eco-development. The challenges before India are not only to sustain
the efforts of the past but also further add to these efforts by involving people in the mission.
BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT:
INITIATIVES IN INDIA
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 Conservation of Biodiversity
• The hope for conservation of natural biodiversity however rests on preservation of selected
ecosystems and representative areas of different vegetation types in the country. As well as on
saving some of the extinction-prone species. The number of endangered species of plants and
animals is on the rise, which has prompted government and non-governmental organizations to take
certain steps in this direction. Forestry and wildlife were primarily under the control of state
governments but later on looking to the gravity of the situation a separate Ministry of Environment
and Forests was established.
The aims and objectives of wildlife management in India includes the following
(i) Protection of natural habitats
(ii) Maintenance of a viable number of species
(iii) Establishment of biosphere reserves
(iv) Protection through legislation
• Some of the non-government organizations working in this direction are
• (i) Bombay Natural History Society
• (ii) Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun.
• (iii) World Wide Fund for Nature India (WWF)
Laws Governing Biodiversity
Conservation in India
(i) The Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873.
(ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.
(iii) The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
(iv) Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1912.
(v) The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
(vi) Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
(vii) Haily National Park Act.. 1936.
(viii) Bombay Wild, Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951.
(ix) Assam Rhinoceros Protection Act, 1954.
(x) The Cruelty Against Animals Act, 1960.
(xi) The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
(xii) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
(xiii) Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act; 1991.
Conservation of Forests and National Ecosystems Act, 1994.
IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION
OF BIODIVERSITY
The goal of biodiversity conservation can be attained in a number of ways. The concept of gene banks
regulates all these methods.
In-situ conservation
It can be defined as the conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem (natural habitats)
or even man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur. This type of conservation is applicable to
wild flora and fauna as conservation is achieved through protection of populations in their natural
ecosystems. The concept of protected areas falls under this category e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries
and Biosphere reserves etc.
Ex-situ conservation
It can he defined as the conservation of plants and animals away from their natural habitats, which
includes collection of samples of genetic diversity and their treatment in the laboratory, where they are
cultured. The concept of ‘gene banks’ has primarily become the talk for ex-situ conservation as it is
important for conservation of agricultural crops and forestry based afforestation programmes. Genetic
resource centres fall under this category and include botanical gardens, zoos etc.
INSTITUTIONS FOR “EX-SITU”
CONSERVATION OF
BIODIVERSITY
(a) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
The set up was established in 1976 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) New Delhi
for “Ex-Situ” conservation of plant genetic resources for agri-horticultural and agri-silvicultural
activities. Built- in long term cold storage (Gene Banks) have been installed in New Delhi to conserve
genetic resources at low temperature of 20°C. At present, NBPGR holds about 48.5 thousand
accessions of diverse species of economically important plants (Khanna & Singh 1987). A number of
scientific organizations dealing with storage of genetic material of various crop plants have been
established in India after independence. They are “Rice Research Institute”, Cuttack, “Potato
Research Institute”, Shimla & “Indian Institute of Horticultural Research”, Bangalore.
(b) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
• It was established in the 1980’s in Kamal, Punjab: for preservation of germless of improved varieties
of cattle’s-cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, camels and oxen and their various breeds found in
different parts of India. Other organizations for “ex-situ” conservation of animal germplasm are
“National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources”. Lucknow and Wildlife Research Institute of India,
Dehradun. At WRI a “gene bank” of all wild and domesticated animals of India is coming up.
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Protected areas of India for “In-Situ” Conservation of Biodiversity:
Three types of protected areas-
(i) Wildlife Sanctuaries;
(ii) National Park;
(iii) Biosphere Reserves were created in India for “In-Situ” conservation of biodiversity.
As on 31 March, 1994 there were 421 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 75 National Park, 14 Biosphere Reserved
in India covering about 4% of total geographical area. In-situ conservation of wildlife is a
comprehensive system of protected areas. There are different categories of protected areas, which
are managed with different objectives for bringing benefits to the society. The major protected areas
include: (i) National Parks, (ii) Sanctuaries, (iii) Biosphere Reserves etc. These areas vary
considerably in size, design, purpose and effectiveness of management.
Distribution between National Park, Sanctuary and Biosphere
Reserve
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• (i) National Park
According to the Indian Board for Wild Life (IBWL), “a National Park is an area dedicated by statute for
all time to conserve the scenery, natural and historical objects, to conserve the wild life there in and to
provide for enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means, that will leave them
unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations with such modification as local conditions may
demand”. The history of National parks in India begins in 1936 when the Hailey (now Corbett) national
parks of United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) was created. The area is declared for the protection
and preservation for all time of wild animal life and wild vegetation for the benefit and advantage and
enjoyment of the general public. In this area hunting of fauna or collection of flora is prohibited except
under the direction of park authority.
• (ii) Sanctuary
The Indian Board for Wild Life has defined a sanctuary as, ‘An area where killing, hunting, shooting or
capturing of any species of bird or animal is prohibited except by or under the control of highest
authority in the department responsible for the management of the sanctuary and whose boundaries
and character should be sacrosanct as far as possible. By June 1992 India had 416 sanctuaries. The
Board has further clarified the position by stating that while the management of sanctuaries does not
involve suspension or restriction of normal forest operation, it is desirable to aside a completely
sacrosanct area within a sanctuary to be known as ‘Abhyaranya’. It has also indicated that sanctuaries
should be made accessible to the public.
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In India sanctuary is usually created by an order or gazette notification of State government.
So the weakness of a sanctuary is that it can be de-sanctuaried merely by another order or
gazette notification of a State government because it is not safeguarded by any proper
legislation. The idea behind a wild life sanctuary and a national park is same, i.e., maximum
protection, preservation and conservation of wild animals. But the fundamental difference
between the two is that a sanctuary is created by order of a competent authority, who may
be the chief conservator of forest: or minister of a State, while a national park can be
harmed, abolished or changed only by the legislation of a State. There are, title status and
degree of permanency and protection is much higher in a national park than in a sanctuary.
In a wild life sanctuary private ownership rights may continue and forestry usages also may
continue so long as wild life conservation is not adversely affected. However, in a national
park all private ownership rights are extinguished and all forestry and other usages are
prohibited. Every national park should have the minimum requisites of fauna, flora and
scenery etc. There should be sufficient means of management and protection in a
sanctuary to be upgraded as national park.
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• (iii) Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves have been
described as undisturbed natural
areas for scientific study as well as
areas in which conditions of
disturbance are under control. These
serve as the centres for ecological
research and habitat protection, The
“Biosphere consists of two main
zones as:
Assignment No. 2
Q. What are the recent measures taken by the government of India to
preserve biodiversity?