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Lecture 12
TYPES OF SENTENCES AND
CLAUSES
UALL1034
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What is a SENTENCE?

 Grammar deals with rules for combining words into larger units.
 morpheme—word—phrase--clause--sentence
 The largest unit described here is the ‘sentence’.

A sentence is a string of words that follows the rules

for forming clauses and combination of clauses.

(Roger Berry, English Grammar)

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Subject, Predicate & Verb

 A sentence can be divided into two main constituents: the subject and the
predicate.
 The predicate consists of the verb and any other elements of the sentence apart
from the subject.

subject predicate
I learned all these much later.

The chef is a young man with broad experience of the world.

The fate of the land parallels the fate of the culture.

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Sentence vs. Clause

 Consider the sentence Tom married Amy when he was 19.

 Here, the string Tom married Amy is a complete sentence of its own.
 The string when he was 19 is not a complete sentence on its own. It is however a
clause.
 Clauses may thus make up an independent sentence or be dependent on another
clause to make a sentence.

Clauses are groups of words consisting of a

subject and a finite form of a verb.
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Types of clauses

Clauses are either dependent (subordinate) or independent (main).

An independent or main clause can exist by itself as a complete sentence ( e.g. I love
grammar.).

A dependent or subordinate clause depends on an independent clause to express its

full meaning (“Because I love grammar, I spend a lot of time studying it.”).

These clauses begin with a dependent word such as a subordinating conjunction or

a relative pronoun.
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Types of Clauses

Independent clauses are connected by a comma followed by a coordinator. They may

also be separated by a semi-colon.
 The pirate captain lost his treasure map, but he still found the buried treasure.
 The pirate ship was sinking; however, the captain refused to give up.
If the dependent clause precedes the main clause, it is set off by a comma. Otherwise,
no punctuation is necessary.
 After the chicken was cooked, I transferred it to the serving dish.
 Exercise 7
Identify the independent clause(s) in the following sentences.
(Some might have none.)

1. The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously for forty-five
minutes a day.
2. The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too much weight.
3. Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich, sweet desserts.
4. Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart.
5. His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno, thinks Charlie may be
a lost cause.
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Types of Sentences
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Simple Sentences

A sentence that does not contain another clause within it is a simple sentence.
 Tom married Amy.
 The big black truck proceeded slowly up the hill.
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Multiple Sentences

 A multiple sentence is a sentence that contains one or more clauses. They can be
either compound or complex.

If the multiple sentence consists

If the multiple sentence of one main clause and one or
consists of two or more more subordinate clauses, it is a
main clauses, it is a complex sentence.
compound sentence.
[If you have a touch-tone phone],
[He should have been here at [please listen carefully], [before
five] and [he’s not here yet]. you make your choice].
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Compound Sentences

A sentence containing two or more main clauses linked by one of the coordinating
conjunctions (and, or, but):

 Lawns are turning green, flowers are blooming, and summer’s time is returning.
 Send it to me by post or bring it around yourself.
 They have played badly every year since 1998, but this year may be different.
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Complex Sentences

A sentence containing one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is a
complex sentence.
 After I got home, I cooked and cleaned the house.
 He couldn’t find the keys because he had left it in the office.
 If people feel good about coming to work, they will work better.
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Examples
Clause Clause Clause
She took her duties
seriously.
That was a few years ago but my feelings have
not changed a bit.
When I left college, I couldn’t find any
work.
He turned around, someone pushed him and he fell.
As soon as she opened the He knew something for the first lines of
envelope, was wrong. Richard’s letter were
full of apologies.
The water begins to as it does so, and it expands.
freeze,
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Exercise

Identify if the following sentences are simple, compound or complex.

1. The firm has launched a full investigation.

2. I may be staying around to the end of the week, or I may go back tomorrow.
3. This evening, French police are guarding key points around the city.
4. There are thousands here today and the atmosphere is electric.
5. The Foreign Secretary said that the Gulf War had exposed deep divisions and
differences between member states on key issues.
6. If it’s a really nice day, we could walk.
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Types of Dependent Clauses

There are two types of dependent clauses:

1. Finite Clauses
 Noun/Nominal/Complement Clauses
 Adjective/Relative Clauses
 Adverbial Clauses
 Comparative Clauses
2. Non-finite Clauses
 Present Participle Clauses
 Past Participle Clauses
 Infinitive Clauses (with ‘to’ and without ‘to’)
 Verbless Clauses
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Finite
Dependent
Clauses
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Noun/Nominal/Complement Clauses

Nominal clauses perform the syntactic roles of nouns (subject, object, complement) in
the main clause. (this, in this, with this, about this)
 That this was a tactical decision (S) quickly became apparent.
 They believe that minimum wage could threaten their jobs. (dO).
 What I don’t understand (S) is why they won’t tell me.(sC)

They are also called complement clauses. They can appear within phrases as
complements of a noun, adjective or preposition.
 She was [afraid of what might happen].
 There is [a fear that such plans might fail].
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Noun/Nominal/Complement Clauses

Noun clauses are introduced by a wh-word or the subordinator that.

Question words I don’t know when he’s coming.

(what, where, He has no idea where he left his glasses.
when)

that He said that he will visit us soon.

I’m pleased that you were able to come for the party.
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Noun/Nominal/Complement Clauses

Noun clause can function as subject, complement or object.

 What I want to do S does not concern you.

 That you love her S is obvious.
 The issue is what time you’re coming back. sC
 I believe that it is important to voice your opinions. dO
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Adjective/Relative Clauses

An adjective or relative clause describes a noun just like an adjective. It is a post-

modifier in a noun phrase.
Relative clauses describe or provide information about a noun.
 I tried to help a child who was crying her eyes out.
 She reached for the knife which was left on the table.

Relative clauses are either restrictive or non-restrictive (also called defining or non-
defining).
Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who, which, that, whom,
whose) or relative adverbs (where, when, why).
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Restrictive Relative Clauses

A restrictive clause identifies the intended reference of the head noun.

The building that they built in San Francisco sold for a lot of money.
(specifies the one in San Francisco as opposed to the one in Houston)
My sister who lives in California brought me these chocolates.

No comma is used to set off a restrictive post-modifier.

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Non-restrictive Relative Clauses

Non-restrictive Clause
A non-restrictive clause begins with who or which.
It adds elaborative, descriptive information about a head noun that has already been
identified/is assumed to be known.
The building, which they built in San Francisco, sold for a lot of money.
Mount Etna, which is located in Italy, was once an active volcano.
Non-restrictive post-modifiers are separated from the head noun with commas.
-You already knew the identity so what matters is to add another information.
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Exercise

The following sentences may include restrictive or non-restrictive relative

clauses. Add commas (,) where necessary.

1. Edward Johnson who has been accepted by several colleges will go to Harvard this fall.
2. We are looking for someone who went to Harvard.
3. I see you are wearing the jacket which Mother bought you for Christmas last year.
4. Mr. Hawkins who is an avid antique car enthusiast bought a 1929 Renault.
5. People who are uncomfortable in crowds shouldn’t go to the movie theater.
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Adverbial Clauses

Like all adverbials, adverbial clauses express when, where, why, and how
something occurs.
 I'll do the laundry when I'm out of clothes.
 Although I had no money, I decided to go on that tour.
 He answered the question as though he knew the subject well.
An adverbial clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.
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Meanings Expressed by Adverbial Clauses

meaning subordinating example

conjunction
time after, as long as, since, The children ran away as soon as they
until, when, while heard the window smash.

place where, wherever He wanted to stay where he had always

lived.
reason as, because, that, since I teach English because I think it is
important.
manner as if, as though We staggered as if we were drunk.

contrast although, despite, while He did his work although he didn’t

look happy.
condition if, unless, provided that I don’t go out if it is raining.
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Common Subordinating Conjunctions
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Comparative Clauses

Comparative clauses are complements in an adjective clause or an adverb clause

with a gradable word as its head.
They are introduced by a conjunction (than for unequal comparison) and (as for equal
comparison).
 Maybe Henry would realize that she was not as nice as she pretended to be.
AdjP

 She fled these Sunday afternoons earlier than she should have. AdvP
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Exercise

Identify the type of the underlined finite dependent clause.

1. The goal of our company is what is explained in the profile.
2. We should go as soon as you are ready.
3. You should speak about how your parents immigrated to this country.
4. The dog that bit me had to be put down.
5. Since no one was ready, I sat down and turned on the TV.
6. I know that he is here.
7. My brother, who lives in Canada, is a lawyer.
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Non-finite Dependent Clauses

Non-finite clauses are generally subordinate clauses.

They are more compact than finite clauses.
They do not have tense or modality and they usually lack an explicit subject.
There are four major types:
 Present Participle Clauses (-ing Clauses)
 Past Participle Clauses (-ed Clauses)
 Infinitive Clauses (with ‘to’ and without ‘to’)
 Verbless Clauses
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-ing Clauses
 Present participle clauses have a range of syntactic roles:

subject Getting started on the Internet doesn’t cost a fortune.

subject The biggest problem in learning a language is

complement remembering all the words.
direct object I started thinking about Christmas.

adverbial I didn’t come out of it looking particularly well, I know.

complement of a No one could think of saying goodbye so early.

preposition

noun post- This man making the false accusations should be

modifier prosecuted.
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Past Participle Clauses

Past participle clauses are less versatile than the other types of non-finite
clauses.

direct object Two-year-old Constantine will have his cleft-palate

repaired.
I am having my house painted.

adverbial Looked after carefully, this coat will keep you warm
through many winters.
Defeated in battle, the Russians headed home.

noun post- This is the course chosen by a large majority of

modifier households.
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Infinitive Clauses

(a) with to
 I came all the way to find out what had happened.
 To help people who travel by car, there are multi-storey car parks around
the city.

(b) without to
 They made the professor forget his notes.
 We helped him unload the car.
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Infinitive Clauses
Infinitive clauses have a wide range of syntactic roles..

subject To err is human.

extraposed subject It is difficult to maintain a friendship.

subject complement My goal is to look to the future.

direct object I hate to see you go.

object complement He considered the issues to have been satisfactorily
dealt with.

adverbial They hung around to watch the fight.

noun post-modifier They say that failure to take precautions against

the virus could prove fatal.
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Verbless Clauses

Verbless clauses are a special type of non-finite clause. They can be treated as reduced
clauses.

 Although fearful of the road conditions, they decided to go by car. (Although they were
fearful)
 Weary and almost out of money, we drove into a petrol station off the motorway. (We
were weary and almost out of money)
 Without hope, he started to run. (He was without hope.)
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Non-finite & Verbless Clauses

 Non-finite and verbless clauses can be regarded as reduced clauses, reduced in

comparison with finite clauses.
 Verbless clauses also lack a verb.
 Though a clause is a unit with a verb as its central element, the term ‘verbless clause’
seems a contradiction in terms.
 However, they are still called clauses because they behave like clauses in their
syntactic role.
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Exercise

Indicate whether the following underlined clauses are –ing clauses, -ed clauses,
infinitive clauses or verbless clauses.

1. England’s initial target was to scrape together 22 runs from their last two wickets.
2. The season begins in earnest on Sunday with the Worth tournament, won by
Sevenoaks last year.
3. The Finnish boat capsized after losing its keel 120 miles off the Argentine coast.
4. Torn between conflicting emotions, Terence decided to run away.
5. 3-0 down at half time, West Ham never really looked like scoring.