REPORTED SPEECH

There are two ways of relating what a person

has said: direct and indirect.
 In direct speech we repeat the original
speaker’s exact words:
 Example:
He said, “I have lost my umbrella.”
 In indirect speech we give the exact meaning
of a remark or a speech, without necessarily
using the speaker’s exact words:
 Example:
He said (that) he had lost his
umbrella.
…..continue…..
When we turn direct speech into indirect,
some changes are usually necessary:
 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: CHANGES
NECESSARY
A. First and second person pronouns and
possessive adjectives normally change to
the third person. (I = he, she; me = him,
her; my = his, her; mine = his, hers; we =
they...)
…..continue……

 Example:
 She said, “he’s my son”.  She said that he was her son.
 “I’m ill”, she said.  She said that she was ill.
 B. THIS / THESE
 This used in time expressions usually becomes that.
 Example:
 She said, “She’s coming this week”.  She said that she
was coming that week.
 This and that used as adjectives usually change to the.
 Example:
He said, “I bought this pearl/these pearls for my
mother”.
He said that he had bought the pearl/the pearls for his
mother
……continue……
This, these used as pronouns can become
it, they/them.
Example:
 He came back with two knives and said, “I
found these beside the king’s bed”.
  He said he had found them beside the
king’s bed.
 He said, “We will discuss this tomorrow”. 
He said that they would discuss it (the
matter) the next day
…..continue…

EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND PLACE IN

INDIRECT SPEECH
A. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time
change as follows:
…..continue…..

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

today that day

yesterday the day before

the day before yesterday two days before

tomorrow the next day/the following day

the day after tomorrow in two day’s time

next week/year etc. the following week/year etc.

last week/year etc. the previous week/year etc.

a year etc. ago a year before/the previous year

……continue……
 Examples:
“I saw her the day before yesterday”, he
said.  He said he’d seen her two days
before.
 “I’ll do it tomorrow”, he promised.  He
promised that he would do it the next day.
 She said, “My father died a year ago”. 
She said that her father had died a year
before/the previous year.
…..continue…..
B. But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these
time changes are not necessary:
Examples:
At breakfast this morning he said, “I’ll be very busy today”. At
breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today.
C. here can become there but only when it is clear what place
is meant:
Example:
At the station he said, “I’ll be here again tomorrow”.  He said
that he’d be there again the next day.
Usually here has to be replaced by some phrase:
She said, “You can sit here, Tom”. She told Tom that he could
sit beside her.
…..continue….
A. Indirect speech can be introduced by a
verb in a present tense:
He says that ... This is usual when we are:
a. reporting a conversation that is still going
on
b. reading a letter and reporting what it says
c. reading instructions and reporting them
d. reporting a statement that someone
makes very often,
e.g. Tom says that he’ll never get
married.
…….continue…..
When the introductory verb is in a present, present
perfect or future tense we can report the direct
speech without any change of tense:
PAUL (phoning from the station): I’m trying to get a
taxi.
ANN (to Mary, who is standing beside her): Paul
says he is trying to get a taxi.
B. But indirect speech is usually introduced by a
verb in the past tense. Verbs in the direct speech
have
then to be changed into a corresponding past tense.
The changes are shown in the following table.
 ……continue…
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Simple Present Simple Past

“I never eat meat”, he = He explained (that) he never
explained. ate meat.
Past Continuous
Present Continuous
= He said (that) he was
“I’m waiting for Ann”, he said.
waiting for Ann.
Past Perfect
Present Perfect
= He said (that) he had found
“I have found a flat”, he said.
a flat.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said, “I’ve been waiting for = He said (that) he had been
ages”. waiting for ages.
Simple Past Past Perfect
“I took it home with me”, she = She said (that) he had taken
said. it home with her.
 ….continue….
All those changes represent the distancing
effect of the reported speech, Common
sense, together
with the time aspect from the speaker’s point
of view, are more important than the rules
when
making the usual changes.
QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Direct question: He said, “Where is she
going?”
Indirect question: He asked where she was
going.
A. When we turn direct questions into indirect
speech, the following changes are necessary:
1. Tenses, pronouns and possessive
adjectives, and adverbs of time and place
change as in statements.
2. The interrogative form of the verb changes
to the affirmative form.
3. The question mark is omitted in indirect
questions.
 ….continue….
 Questions are of two types.

1. WH questions are information seeking questions

 He said, “When will Ritu come for dinner?”
 He asked when Ritu would come for dinner.
 He said, “Why are you angry?”
 He asked why I was angry
1. Yes/No questions
 He said, “Are you okay?”
 He enquired if I was okay.
 He asked, “Have you done your homework?”
 He asked if I had done my homework.
 Examples:
 He said, “Why didn’t you put on the brake?”  He asked
(her) why she hadn’t put on
the brake.
She said, “What do you want?”  She asked (them) what
they wanted.
 If there is no question word, if or whether must be used:
“Is anyone there?” he asked  He asked if/whether
anyone was there.
 ‘’if’’ is more commonly used in everyday conversation and
informal writing
 Example: direct question: ‘’are you coming to the party?’’
indirect speech: he asked if I was coming to the party
 ‘’Whether’’ is more formal and is used when there are two
possible options or alternatives.
 Example: Direct question ‘’will she go to the school or the
market?’’
 Indirect speech: she asked whether she would go to the
COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE IN INDIRECT
SPEECH

 Direct command: He said, “Lie down, Tom”.

Indirect command: He told Tom to lie down.
 Indirect commands, requests, advice are usually
expressed by a verb of command/request/advice +
object + infinitive.
A. The following verbs can be used: advise, ask, beg,
command, order, remind, tell, warn etc.
 Example:
He said, “Get your coat, Tom!”  He told Tom to get
his coat.
B. Negative commands, requests etc. are usually
reported by not + infinitive:
“Don’t swim out too far, boys”, I said  I warned/told
the boys not to swim out too far.
EXCLAMATIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

Exclamations usually become statements in

indirect speech.
The exclamation mark disappears.
a. Exclamations beginning What (a) ... or
How ... can be reported by: -
exclaim/say that:
Examples:
He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How
dreadful!”  He exclaimed that it was a
dreadful idea/was dreadful.
‘’where’’ is more formal and is often used
when there are two possible options or
alternatives.
Example: direct question: ’will she go to
the market or the school’’
Indirect speech: she asked whether would
go to the market or the school.
…..continue….
B. Other types of exclamation such as Good!
Marvellous! Splendid! Heavens! Oh! etc. can
be reported as in (b) or (c) above:
“Good!” he exclaimed.  He gave an
exclamation of pleasure/satisfaction.
C. Note also:
He said, “Thank you!”  He thanked me.
He said, “Good luck!”  He wished me luck.
He said, “Happy Christmas!”  He wished me a
happy Christmas.
He said, “Congratulations!”  He congratulated
me.
He said, “Liar!”  He called me a liar.
YES AND NO IN INDIRECT SPEECH
yes and no are expressed in indirect speech
by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb.
Examples:
He said, “Can you swim?” and I said “No” 
He asked (me) if I could swim and I said I
couldn’t.
He said, “Will you have time to do it?” and I
said “Yes”  He asked if I would have
time to do it and I said that I would.
OFFERS AND SUGGESTIONS IN INDIRECT
SPEECH

A. OFFERS
“Shall I bring you some tea?” could be
reported He offered to bring me some tea.
B. SUGGESTIONS
“Shall we meet at the theatre? could be
reported He suggested meeting at the
theatre.
INDIRECT SPEECH: MIXED TYPES
Direct speech may consist of statement +
question, question + command, command +
statement, or all
three together.
Normally each requires its own introductory verb.
Examples:
“I don’t know the way. Do you?” he asked.  He
said he didn’t know the way and asked her
if she did/if she knew it.
He said, “Someone is coming. Get behind the
screen.”  He said that someone was coming
and told me to get behind the screen.
REPORTED SPEECH: OTHER POINTS

A. MUST: after a past reporting verb, must does not

usually change:
Examples:
He said, “It must be pretty late, I really must go”. 
He said that it must be pretty late and
he really must go.
 had to is also possible in reported speech, but this
is really the past of have to, not must.
 Example:
He said, “I have to go. I have an appointment in half
an hour”  He said that he had to go because he
had an appointment in half an hour
…….continue….
B. MODAL VERBS: Past modal verbs (could,
might, ought to, should, used to, etc. ) do not
normally change in reported speech.
Exam[ples:
He said, “I might come”.  He said that he
might come.
He said, “I would help him if I could”.  He
said that he would help
him if he could.
He said, “You needn’t wait”.  He said that I
needn’t wait.
…..continue….
C. CONDITIONALS: Conditional sentences
type two remain unchanged.
Example:
He said, “If my children were older I would
emigrate”.  He said that if his children
were older he would emigrate.
….continue….
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- A. J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet, A Practical
English Grammar, Oxford University Press,
1986
- R. Fernández Carmona, English Grammar…
with exercises, Longman, 2000
- R. Murphy, English Grammar in Use,
Cambridge University Press 1990
- M. Harrison, Grammar Spectrum 2, Oxford
University Press, 1996
- N. Coe, Grammar Spectrum 3, Oxford
University Press, 1996
 EXERCISES
 STATEMENTS
 1. These people are saying these things. Report
them, using says that.
 a. Paul: “Atlanta is a wonderful city.”
_______________________________________
_________
 b. Ruth: “I go jogging every morning.”
_______________________________________
_________
 c. Anna: “Jenny isn’t studying for her exams.”
_______________________________________
______
 d. Andrew: “I used to be very fat.”
_______________________________________
_________
 Adverbial Clause
 adverbial clause is a group of words that function as an adverb
in a sentence.
Just as an adverb modify verbs, adjectives or other adverb in a
main clause.
Adverb clauses are dependent clauses that answer the
questions why, where, and when, under what conditions,
or to what degree the action in the main clause took
place.
The various classes of adverb clauses are place, time,
cause, purpose, condition, and concession.
The verb in the adverbial clause should match that of the
main clause (i.e. both present tense or both past tense)
 ……CONTINUE….
There are several different kinds of adverbial clauses:
1. Adverbial Clause of Time - An adverb of time states
when something happens or how often.
An adverb of time often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: after, as, as long
as, as soon as, before, no sooner than, since, until, when or
while. Examples:
a. when (at the time) - e.g. I can see you when I finish my
work.
b. while (during that time) - e.g. She was reading a book
while the dinner was cooking.
c. before - e.g. They will leave before you get here.
 ……continue….
after - e.g. After John’s employer warned him about his
careless work, he was more careful.
e. by the time (one event is completed before another
event) :
e.g. By the time the lecturer explained about Newton’s
theory, the students had already read a little about it at
their own houses.
f. since (from the time to present) :
 e.g. I haven’t seen her since she left this morning.
 …..continue….

2. Adverbial Clause of Place - An adverb of place states where

something happens.
 An adverb of place often starts with a preposition (e.g., in, on,
near) or one of the following subordinating conjunctions:
anywhere, everywhere, where or wherever.
Example:
a. where (definite place) - e.g. We live where the road crosses
the river
b. wherever (any place) - e.g. The mad man usually goes
wherever he wish to go.
c. everywhere (any place) - e.g. Everywhere I meet him, I
always want to be angry
d. anywhere (any place) - e.g. I will find you anywhere you are.
…..continue….
3. Adverbial Clause of Condition – An adverb of condition
states the condition for the main idea to come into effect.
They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions if,
whether, provided that, so long as and unless.
 Example:
a) If I like it, I will buy it.
b) If you heat ice, it melts.
c) If it rains, we will stay at home.
d) You may come if you want to.
e) You won’t pass unless you work hard.
f) You will be shot unless you give me the keys of the locker.
g) There will be no problem provided that you keep your mouth
shut.
h) You will have to take the medicine whether you like it or not
…..continue….
4) Adverbial Clause of Result –
It indicates the consequence or the out comes of an
action in the main clause
They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions
that, so…that,
so that and such…that.
a) The famine was so severe that thousands perished.
b) They fought so bravely that the enemy fled.
c) He is such a good man that all respect him.
d) He spoke in such a low voice that few people couldn’t
hear him.
E)She was so weak that she could hardly stand.
F) It was so hot that we didn’t go out.
…..continue….
5.Adverbial Clause of Concession –
It indicates an expected contrast or acknowledges a circumstance
that goes against the expectation set by the main clause
An adverb of concession offers a statement which contrasts with the
main idea. They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions
though, although, even though,while, whereas and even if.
a) even though I am poor, I am happy.
B)I will be able to get in although I have no ticket.
c) Even if it rains, I will come.
d) The men managed to survive even though they were three days
without water.
e) John is very social whereas his brother is an introvert.
f) Though he is young, he occupies an important position in the firm
 ……Continue…
 7.Adverbial Clause of Purpose –
 It explain the purpose or the goal of the action in the main clause
 The clause tells us the purpose of the action the verb states.
 They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions that, so that, in order
that and lest.
 Examples:
 a) We eat that we may live.
 b) He works hard so that he will become a millionaire.
 c) Put on your warm clothes lest you should catch a chill.
 d) Schools were closed early in order that students might reach home before
the thunderstorm.
 e) He reads so hard so that he can graduate top of his class.
 f) You need to shed off some weight lest you should become obese.
 g) The ceremony was rounded off in order that attendees might get to their
destinations on time.
 h) We work that we may earn and have to give.
 i) We should work smarter and not harder so that we will not wear out our
bodies.
 …..continue….
8.Adverbial Clause of Reason (Cause) – An adverb of
reason offers a reason for the main idea.
They are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions
because, as, since and that.
a) I sing because I like singing.
b) He thinks he can get anything because he is rich.
c) Since he has apologized, we will take no further action
against him.
d) As he was not there, I left a message with his mother.
e) I am glad that you have come.
f) My parents were disappointed that I didn’t get the
scholarship.
g) He was furious that his book was criticized by most
reviewers
……continue…..
9.Adverbial Clause of Manner - An adverb of manner states how
something is done.
An adverb of manner often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: as, like, or the way.
Examples:
a) The man was talking as if she was the leader of the group.
b) She performed so excellently that she got a scholarship.
c) Please do it (exactly) as I instructed.
d) (Just) as sugar attracts an ant (so) her beauty and congeniality
attract customers to her shop.
e) He acts like it is a joke.
f ) We don't have conversations. You talk at me the way a teacher
talks to a naughty student.
g) Except for an occasional heart attack, I feel as young as I ever
did.
……continue…..
9.Adverbial Clause of Manner - An adverb of manner states how
something is done.
An adverb of manner often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: as, like, or the way.
Examples:
a) The man was talking as if she was the leader of the group.
b) She performed so excellently that she got a scholarship.
c) Please do it (exactly) as I instructed.
d) (Just) as sugar attracts an ant (so) her beauty and congeniality
attract customers to her shop.
e) He acts like it is a joke.
f ) We don't have conversations. You talk at me the way a teacher
talks to a naughty student.
g) Except for an occasional heart attack, I feel as young as I ever
did.
 Common spelling rule
 Definition of common terms:
Suffix: groups of letters attached to the end of a word to
change the word’s meaning
Prefix: groups of letters attached to the beginning of a
word to change the word’s
meaning
Some Spelling Rules:
 1) Use i before e, except after c, or when sounding like
"a" as in
"neighbor"
 Examples: piece, chief, perceive, ceiling
 Some exceptions: neighbor, weird, height, neither, foreign
 2) Change a final y to i before a suffix, unless

the suffix begins with i.

 Examples: party + es = parties, try + es = tries,

try + ing = trying, copy + ing =copying

……continue…..
 3) Drop the final e in a word before adding a
suffix beginning with a vowel (a, e, i,o, u) but
not before a suffix beginning with a consonant.
Examples: ride + ing = riding, guide + ance =
guidance, like + ness = likeness, arrange +
ment = arrangement
…….continue……
 4) Double a final single consonant before
adding a suffix when the word ends with:
 a single vowel followed by a single consonant

AND the consonant ends a one-syllable word.

 Examples: stop + ing = stopping, occur + ence

= occurrence,
 swim + ing = swimming
…..continue…..

 5) The letter q is usually followed by u.

Example: queen, quick, quality
 6)The consonants v, j, k, and x are never

doubled.
 7) Adding a prefix to a word does not usually

change the spelling.

 Examples: bi + cycle= bicycle, re + act= react
…..continue……
 8) To make a word plural, if the word ends
with a consonant and y, change the y to i and
add es.
 Example: “baby” plural is “babies”
 9) When y is at the end of a 2 syllable word, it

usually stands for the long e sound.

 Example: baby, penny, candy
…..continue…..

 12) If a one syllable word has 2 vowels, the first vowel

is usually long and the second is usually silent.
Example: leaf, team
13) Words ending in a vowel and y can add the suffix -ed
or -ing without making any other change.
Examples: buying, delaying, employed
14) When the letters ey are at the end of a 2 syllable
word, they usually stand for
the long e sound.
Examples: donkey, money
 These are not all of the spelling rules in the
English language. Learning English is a long
process, but with lots of
practice, you will improve!
 THANK YOU
Passive Voice of Interrogative and imperative Sentences
Questions beginning with do/does
Normal structure of interrogative sentence in
active voice starting with do/does is
Do/does + subject + verb + object ? (Active
Voice)
Ex: Does she cook the food? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘cook’ is verb and ‘the
food’ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
Am/is/are + subject + V-3 + by + agent ?
(Passive Voice)
Ex: Is the food cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in
passive voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past
participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer)
See some more examples to clarify this
 Does Sue write homework? (Active
Voice)
Is homework written by Sue?
(Passive Voice)
 Does Samson learn English? (Active
Voice)
Is English learnt by Samson?
(Passive Voice)
Questions beginning with am/is/are
Normal structure of interrogative sentence in
active voice starting with am/is/are is
Am/is/are + subject + verb + ing + object ?
(Active Voice)
Ex: Is she cooking the food? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘cooking’ is verb and ‘the
food’ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
Am/is/are + subject + being + V-3 + by +
agent? (Passive Voice)
Ex: Is the food being cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in passive
voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer))
Note: You might have noticed that whenever
there is verb + ing in active voice, we are
using being + V-3 in passive voice.
See some more examples to clarify this
Is Sue writing homework? (Active Voice)
Is homework being written by Sue? (Passive
Voice)
Is Helen learning English? (Active Voice)
Is English being learnt by Helen? (Passive
Voice)
Questions beginning with did
Normal structure of interrogative sentence in
active voice starting with did is
Did + subject + verb + object ? (Active Voice)
Ex: Did she cook the food? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘cook’ is verb and ‘the
food’ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
Was/were + subject + V-3 + by + agent ?
(Passive Voice)
Ex: Was the food cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in passive
voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer)
See some more examples to clarify this
Did Ann write homework? (Active Voice)
Was homework written by Ann? (Passive
Voice)
Did Samson learn English? (Active Voice)
Was English learnt by Samson? (Passive
Voice)
See some more examples to clarify this
Did Ann write homework? (Active Voice)
Was homework written by Ann? (Passive
Voice)
Did Samson learn English? (Active Voice)
Was English learnt by Samson? (Passive
Voice)
Was/were + subject + being + V-3 + by +
agent ? (Passive Voice)
Ex: Was the food being cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in passive
voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer
See some more examples to clarify this
Was Sally writing homework? (Active Voice)
Was homework being written by Sally?
(Passive Voice)
Was Simran learning English? (Active Voice)
Was English being learnt by Simran?
(Passive Voice)
Questions beginning with have/has/had
Normal structure of interrogative sentence in
active voice starting with have/has/had is
Have/has/had + subject + V-3 + object ?
(Active Voice)
Ex: Has she cooked the food? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past
participle) of cook and ‘the food’ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
Have/has/had + subject + been + V-3 + by +
agent ? (Passive Voice)
Ex: Has the food been cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in passive
voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer))
See some more examples to clarify this
 Has Tom written homework? (Active Voice)
Has homework been written by Tom? (Passive
Voice)
 Has Jack learnt English? (Active Voice)
Has English been learnt by Jack? (Passive
Voice)
Questions beginning with modals
Normal structure of interrogative sentence in
active voice starting with modals is
Modal + subject + verb + object ? (Active
Voice)
Ex: Can she cook the food? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘cook’ is V-3 verb and
‘the food’ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
Modal + subject + be + V-3 + by + agent ?
(Passive Voice)
Ex: Can the food be cooked by her? (Passive
Voice)
(Here ‘The food’ becomes subject in passive
voice, ‘cooked’ is V-3 (past participle) of
cook, and ‘her’ is agent (doer))
See some more examples to clarify this
 Should Tom write homework? (Active Voice)
Should homework be written by Tom?
(Passive Voice)
 Would Sally learn English? (Active Voice)
Would English be learnt by Sally? (Passive
Voice)
Questions starting ‘Wh’ questions
Questions starting with what, why, where, when, who,
whom etc are known as ‘wh’ questions
Normal structure of ‘wh’ questions in active voice is
‘Wh’ word + auxiliary + subject + verb + object ?
(Active Voice)
Ex: Why did she punish you? (Active Voice)
(Here ‘she’ is subject, ‘punish’ is verb and ‘you’ is
object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this
structure becomes
‘Wh’ word + auxiliary + subject + V-3 + by +
agent ? (Passive Voice)
Why were you punished by her? (Passive Voice)
(Here ‘you’ becomes subject in passive voice,
‘punished’ is V-3 (past participle) of punish,
and ‘her’ is agent (doer)
See some more examples to clarify this
 Why have you bought this ticket? (Active
Voice)
Why has this ticket been bought by you?
(Passive Voice)
 When will you return the book? (Active Voice)
When will the book be returned by you?
(Passive Voice)
Questions beginning with ‘who’
In such kind of sentences who acts as subject.
See some examples to clear this
Who wrote this letter? (Active Voice)
By whom was this letter written? (Passive
Voice)
Who will call him? (Active Voice)
By whom will he be called? (Passive Voice)
Questions beginning with ‘whom’
o Whom has the principal honoured? (Active
Voice)
Who has been honoured by the principal?
(Passive Voice)
o Whom has the police arrested? (Active Voice)
Who has been arrested by police? (Passive
Voice)
Changing an imperative sentence in the active
voice to passive
An imperative sentence in the passive voice has
the following form:
Let + object + be + past participle.
 Active: Carry it home.
 Passive: Let it be carried home.
 Active: Do it at once.
 Passive: Let it be done at once.
 Active: Open the door.
 Passive: Let the door be opened.
When the active voice is in the negative, the
passive voice takes the form:
Let + object + not + be + past participle.
 Active: Do not beat the dog.
 Passive: Let the dog not be beaten.
Note that ‘do’ is not used in the passive form.
We can begin the passive sentence with ‘you’
if we want to put emphasis on the person
addressed to.
Compare:
 Active: Help me.
 Passive: Let me be helped.
 Passive: You are requested to help me.
 Active: Learn the poem.
 Passive: Let the poem be learned.
Note that the passive form has to begin with
‘you’ when the object of the active verb is not
mentioned.
 Active: Work hard.
Here the active verb does not have an object.
Therefore the passive form should begin with
you.
 Passive: You are advised to work hard.
More examples are given below:
Active: Please lend me some money.
Passive: You are requested to lend me some
money.
Active: Kindly do this work.
Passive: You are requested to do this work.
Note that suggest is followed by a -that clause
and not an infinitive.
Sentences with modals
Active: You ought to respect your parents.
Passive: Your parents ought to be respected by
you.
Active: You should learn your lessons.
Passive: Your lessons should be learned by you.
In sentences where God is invoked the passive
voice will be as follows:
Active: May God bless you!
Passive: May you be blessed by God!
 Compounding Rules

• A compound word is a union of two or more words,

either with or without a hyphen.
• It conveys a unit idea that is not as clearly or quickly
conveyed by the component words in unconnected
succession.
• The hyphen is a mark of punctuation that not only
unites but also separates the component words; it
facilitates understanding, aids readability, and ensures
correct pronunciation.
 General rules
1. In general, omit the hyphen when words appear in
regular order and the omission causes no ambiguity
in sense or sound.
• banking hours
• eye opener
• real estate
• blood pressure
• fellow citizen
• rock candy
• book value
 ……continue….

• 2.A hyphen is used to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling a consonant,

except after the short prefixes co, de, pre, pro, and re, which are
generally printed solid (with no minimum space between).
• cooperation
• semi-independent
• shell-like
• brass-smith
• hull-less
• Inverness-shire
• but anti-inflation
• thimble-eye
• co-occupant
• micro-organism
• ultra-atomic
• cross section
 Solid compounds

• Print solid two nouns that form a third when the

compound has only one primary accent, especially
when the prefixed noun consists of only one syllable or
when one of the elements loses its original accent.
• cupboard
• footnote
• bathroom
• dressmaker
• locksmith
• bookseller
• fishmonger
• workman
 …continue….

1. Print solid a noun consisting of a short verb and an adverb as its second element, except
when the use of the solid form would interfere with comprehension.
• builddown
• flareback
• breakdown
• giveaway
• hangover
• runoff
• but
• holdup
• setup
• makeready
• showdown
• phase-in
• markoff
 …..continue…..

• Compounds beginning with the following nouns are usually printed

solid.
• book
• mill
• snow
• eye
• play
• way
• horse
• school
• wood
• house
• shop
• work
 ……continue…..
• Compounds ending in the following are usually printed solid, especially when the prefixed word
consists of one syllable.

• bird
• board
• boat
• book
• borne
• bound
• box
• boy
• brained
• bush
• cam
• craft
• field
• fish
• flower
• fly
• girl
 ……continue…..
 Print solid any, every, no, and some when combined with body, thing, and where. When one
is the second element, print as two words if meaning a single or particular person or thing. To
avoid mispronunciation, print no one as two words at all times.
• anybody
• everywhere
• somebody
• anything
• everyone
• something
• anywhere
• nobody
• somewhere
• anyone
• nothing
• someone
• everybody
• nowhere
• everything
• no one
 ……continue…..

• Print compound personal pronouns as one

word.
 herself
• oneself
• yourself
• himself
• ourselves
• yourselves
• itself
• themselves
 …….continue….

• Print as one word compass directions consisting

of two points, but use a hyphen after the first
point when three points are combined.
 northeast
• north-northeast
• southwest
• south-southwest
• also north-south alignment
 ……continue……
• Print without a hyphen a two-word modifier the
first element of which is a comparative or
superlative.
• better drained soil
• best liked books

• higher level decision

• larger sized dress
• better paying job
 …..continue……
• Do not use a hyphen in a two-word unit modifier
the first element of which is an adverb ending in
–ly
• eagerly awaited moment
ever-normal granary
• wholly owned subsidiary
ever-rising flood
• unusually well preserved specimen
still-new car
 ….continue……

• Proper nouns used as unit modifiers, either in

their basic or derived form, retain their original
form; but the hyphen is printed when combining
forms.
• Latin American countries
• North Carolina roads
• a Mexican-American
 ….continue…..
1.Print solid combining forms and suffixes, except as indicated elsewhere
 portable
• coverage
• operate
• plebiscite
• twentyfold
• spoonful
• kilogram
• selfish
• pumpkin
• meatless
• outlet
• wavelike
 ……continue…..
• Print solid words ending in like, but use a hyphen
to avoid tripling a consonant or when the first
element is a proper name.
• lifelike
• girl-like
• Scotland-like
• bell-like
 Article Rules In English Grammar
• What is an Article?
• Article is a word that combines with noun and
defines whether a noun in any sentence or phrase
is specific or general.
• An article, in grammatical terms, is one of three
words which comes before a noun.
• Its role is to indicate whether that noun is
something specific and is already known by the
listener/reader (definite), or whether it
is something unknown or non-specific (indefinite).
 …..continue…..

• These are the 3 articles:

• The the definite article
• a and an the indefinite articles
• In academic writing, it is sometimes difficult to
know which article to use, or whether it is not
necessary to use one at all ('zero article').
• The following guide will help you with some
general rules.
 ..….continue….

• THE DEFINITE ARTICLE (The)

• 1. The very basic rule of article says that the
article ‘the’ is used before singular or plural when
the noun is specific.
• It indicates a particular thing/s or person/s in
case of a common noun.
Example:
The teacher​she spoke to in the exhibition was
very rude.
He lost all ​the money​taken from the bank.
 …..continue….

• 2. Article ‘The’ is used when the listener

knows what the speaker is talking about.
Example:
The mangoes​you kept in ​the box ​last night do
not taste good.
Did you complete all ​the homework​?
3. ‘The’ is used to generalize the whole class
or group.
 …..continue…..
Example:
The honest ​are respected
The beggar​are not always the needy
4. ‘The’ is used for geographical points on the globe.
Example: ​The north pole ​and ​the south pole​can never
meet.
5. ‘The’ is used for the nouns that cannot be counted
Example:
The water​of the Pacific oceans is freezing.
 ..….continue….
• 7. ‘The’ is mandatorily used for things that are
only one of a kind in the universe.
Example:
The Sun​and ​the Moon ​shines bright in​the sky​.
The planet​earth looks beautiful from space.
8. ‘The’ does not mean all.
Example:
The books are my favourite (not all the books, just
the book talked about)
Books are my favourite (all the books in general
are favourite)
 ….continue…
• Article rule for Indefinite Article ‘A’ and ‘An’
1. The article ‘a’ is used before a consonant word or
any vowel with a consonant sound.
examples:
A man​is sitting on the chair.
She goes to​a university​in china.
• Similarly, article ‘an’ is used before the words
beginning with a vowel or the letter of consonant
word with a vowel sound.
examples:
She is ​an innocent​girl
He is ​an honest​man.
 ….continue…
• Indefinite article ‘a, or an’ is used to refer to numbers
sometimes.
Example:
The baby is playing with ​a doll​(one doll)
I owe him ​a thousand​bucks. (one thousand dollar)
He drove 120 kilometers in an hour (one hour)
5. Indefinite article (a/an) precedes descriptive adjective
Example:
She is ​an amazing​dancer
What ​a nice​Villa!
6. Indefinite article is used with the determiners(few,
lot, most)
 ….continue….

• 6. Indefinite article is used with the

determiners(few, lot, most)
Example:
There is ​a little​drink in the glass
I have ​a few ​guests coming over
 ….continue….
ZERO ARTICLE
• We do not need an article when:
• 1.a noun is plural and indefinite
• Example: Women generally live longer than men.
• • Long reports are difficult to write.
• 2.a noun is uncountable and indefinite
• The country’s major exports are wool and oil.
• • The river mouth is full of mud and silt.
• another word, such as a personal pronoun,
• demonstrative adjective or quantifier, is used
• • She is my grandmother.
• Egypt is (a) _______ model birthplace for (b) _______ major civilisation. If
you were to head south into
• (c) _______ countryside from (d) _______ Cairo, (e) _______ modern capital
of Egypt, you would soon
• be in (f) _______ narrow valley. You would soon see (g) _______ fields, vivid
green with (h) _______
• fine crops. You would also see (i) _______ vast expanse of dry, golden desert
that borders this river
• valley.
• (j) _______ Nile River makes this contrast possible. Without (k) _______
river, all would be desert. Every
• September, (l) _______ Nile floods, bringing (m) _______ huge amount of
water that can be used for (n)
• _______ irrigation. Floods also make the soil richer by depositing (o)
_______ mud and (p) _______ silt.
• These conditions have been the same for (q) _______ thousands of years. (r)
_______ fertile soil allows
• for (s) _______ rich harvests.
• (a) _______ library catalogue is (b) _______ key to (c) _______
library’s resources. It gives you
• (d) _______ information about materials held in (e) _______
library, and (f) _______ details you need to
• locate them. All (g) _______ Australian and New Zealand
university libraries have online or computerised
• catalogues. Most libraries have their catalogue terminals scattered
throughout (h) _______ building. This is
• (i) _______ distinct advantage over the old card catalogues, which
could only be in one location. Moreover,
• in many cases you can connect to (j) _______ computer catalogue
from home if you have (k) _______
• personal computer and (l) _______ modem. However, (m)
_______ card catalogue is not quite extinct; some
• academic libraries still retain one for details of older material. (n)
_______ oldest books may be on
 Revision of word formation
• Word formation is the process of creating new words or
forming existing word by adding prefixes, suffixes, or other
morphemes
• It involves combining different linguistic elements to create
new words that convey specific meaning.
• This process is essential in language evolution and allows
for the expansion of vocabulary to meet the changing needs
of speakers
 Word Formation Processes
• 1.Borrowing
2. Compounding
• Blending
3. Clipping
4• Backformation
5. Conversion
6. Coinage
7• Acronyms
• 8.Derivation
• Prefixes, suffixes, and
infixes
Borrowing

• It is taking words from other languages.

• One of the most common sources of new words.
Examples of English borrowing from other
languages:
• Piano (Italian)
• Alcohol (Arabic)
• Croissant (French)
• Coffee ( Arabic)
• Entrepreneur (French)
…..continue…..

• From English to other languages:

Example: supermarket
football
Club
Compounding
The joining of two separate words to form a single
word.
Two words joined together to form a new word.
Examples:
Home + work =homework (N)
Pick + pocket =pickpocket (N)
Low + paid =low-paid (Ad )
 …..continue….
• Compounding can be:
• 1 Native compounding: refers to the process of creating
compound words within a specific language using elements
that are native to that language.
• These compounds are formed by combining words, roots, or
morphemes that are already part of the language and are
not borrowed from other language.
• Examples: in English native compounds like ‘’football’’
‘’bookshelf’’ are derived from old English
•2. Borrowing: it refers to when
a language borrows
compound words from
another language.
•Example: English has
borrowed compound words:
• software ( from French)
•Chopstick ( from Chinese)
 Blending
•
Similar to compounds, but in blending only
parts of the words are combined.
Examples:
Motor + hotel= Motel
Breakfast + lunch= Brunch
Smoke + fog= smog
……continue….

• Clipping
Shortening a word by deleting one or
more syllables
Examples:
Hamburger =burger
Gasoline =gas
Advertisement= ad
 Backformation

• Is a process where a new word is created by removing what appears to

be an affix from an existing word
• This typically done when speakers mistakenly interpret a part of a word
as a suffix or prefix and create a new word by removing it.
• For example: the noun ‘’ editor’’ was formed from the verb ‘’edit’’
through back formation. People mistakenly assumed that ‘’ editor’’ was
the original form, and ‘’edit’’ was derived from it by removing the ‘’-
or’’ suffix. In reality ‘’edit’’ came first, and ‘’editor’’ was created later.
• Examples:
• editor edit
television -televise
babysitter -babysit
 Conversion

Assigning an already existing word to a new

syntactic category.
Examples:
butter (N) =V to butter the bread
permit (V)= N an entry permit
empty (A) =V to empty the litter-bin
 Acronyms

• Words derived from the initials of several

words
Examples:
National Aeronautics and Space Agency
NASA
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UNICEF
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization UNESCO
Compact Disc CD
 Derivation

• The most common word formation process.

affixes
Examples:
Happy, unhappy, happiness
Arrange, rearrange
Prefixes vs. suffixes