CELL CYCLE

The One of the basic characteristic of all living organisms is

the ability to reproduce. It is either asexually in unicellular
organisms or sexually in multicellular organism. Sexual
reproduction requires fertilization resulting to a fertilized egg
cell called zygote. All the cells in our body came from the
division of the pre-existing one. In prokaryotes, cell division
can be observed through binary fission. While in the
eukaryotes, cell cycle consists of two distinct phases:
Interphase and Mitotic phase. Cell cycle is a means for the
continuity of life. So before the cell divides it spends most of
its life in the period of cell growth called Interphase with
three sub-stages: G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase followed
by M phase or Mitotic phase
 Cell Cycle
Is an orderly sequence of events involving
cell growth and cell division that produces
two new daughter cells. Cells on the path
to cell division proceed through a series of
precisely timed and carefully regulated
stage of growth, DNA replication and
division that produces two identical (clone)
cell. The cell cycle has two major phase:
Interphase and Mitotic phase. During
Interphase, the cell grows and DNA is
replicated. During the mitotic phase, the
replicated DNA and Cytoplasmic content
are distributed and cell divides.
To divide, a cell must complete several important tasks: it must grow, copy its
genetic material (DNA), and physically split into two daughter cells. Cells perform
these tasks in an organized, predictable series of steps that make up the cell cycle.
The cell cycle is a cycle, rather than a linear pathway, because at the end of each
go-round, the two daughter cells can start the exact same process over again from
the beginning.

In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a nucleus, the stages of the cell cycle are divided
into two major phases:
interphase and the mitotic (M) phase.
During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA.
During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its DNA into two sets and
divides its cytoplasm,forming two new cells.
I. Interphase- The G1, S, and G2 phases together are known as interphase. The prefix inter- means
between, reflecting that interphase takes place between one mitotic (M) phase and the next
 G1, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes
the molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.
 S phase- The cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a
microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help separate DNA
during M phase.
 G2. During the second gap phase, the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins
to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis begins
 M phase- During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to make
two new cells. M phase involves two distinct division-related processes: mitosis and cytokinesis.
In mitosis, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and is pulled apart
by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure made out of microtubules. Mitosis takes place in
four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase and prometaphase), metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. You can learn more about these stages in the video on mitosis.
In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making two new cells. Cytokinesis
usually begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little overlap. Importantly, cytokinesis takes place
differently in animal and plant cells.
 Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
 In an animal cell, a contractile ring of cytoskeletal fibers forms at the middle of the cell and
contracts inward, producing an indentation called the cleavage furrow. Eventually, the
contractile ring pinches the mother cell in two, producing two daughter cells.
 In animals, cell division occurs when a band of cytoskeletal fibers called the contractile
ring contracts inward and pinches the cell in two, a process called contractile cytokinesis.
The indentation produced as the ring contracts inward is called the cleavage furrow.
Animal cells can be pinched in two because they’re relatively soft and squishy.
 In a plant cell, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move to the middle of the cell,
where they fuse to form a structure called the cell plate. The cell plate expands outwards and
connects with the side walls of the cell, creating a new cell wall that partitions the mother
cell to make two daughter cells.
 Plant cells are much stiffer than animal cells; they’re surrounded by a rigid cell wall and have
high internal pressure. Because of this, plant cells divide in two by building a new structure
down the middle of the cell. This structure, known as the cell plate, is made up of plasma
membrane and cell wall components delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in two.
I. MITOTIC PHASE
The mitotic phase is a multi-step process during which the duplicated chromosomes are
condensed,aligned,separated and moved to opposite poles of the cell and then are divided
into new identical daughter cells. Mitosis technically refers to the division of a parental cell
into which entails cytoplasmic division as well

 Cell cycle exit and G0

Cells in G0 phase are not actively preparing to divide. The cell is inactive state that occurs
when cell exit the cell cycle
What happens to the two daughter cells produced in one round of the cell cycle? This
depends on what type of cells they are. Some types of cells divide rapidly, and in these cases,
the daughter cells may immediately undergo another round of cell division. For instance,
many cell types in an early embryo divide rapidly, and so do cells in a tumor.
Other types of cells divide slowly or not at all. These cells may exit the G 1 and enter a
resting state called G0. In G0, a cell is not actively preparing to divide, it’s just doing its job. For
instance, it might conduct signals as a neuron or store carbohydrates as a liver cell. G 0 is a
permanent state for some cells, while others may re-start division if they get the right signals.
 Cell cycle checkpoints verify whether all the cellular activities are accurately completed at each
stage of interphase.
In eukaryotic cells, there are three major checkpoints that control the cell cycle process. They are:
1. G1 checkpoint at the G1/S transition
2. G2 checkpoint at the G2/M transition
3. Spindle checkpoint, transition from metaphase and anaphase

G1 checkpoint checks the following:

a. Cell’s size (Does the cell large increase its size or large enough for cell division?)
b. Nutrients (Does the cell have enough reserve energy and nutrients for cell division?)
c. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
d. Molecular signals (Does the cell receives growth factors and other signals from neighboring cell?)

If the cell does not comply with the following factors, cell cycle will stop and enters the G0 phase
called the resting state. Some cell stays in G0 phase permanently, while others proceed to divide if the
condition of the cell improves. G0 Phase. Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern in which a newly
formed daughter cell immediately enters the preparatory phases of interphase, closely followed by the mitotic
phase. Cells in G0 are not actively preparing to divide. The cell is in quiescent (inactive stage) that occurs when
an external signal triggers the onset of G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle
and nerve cells permanently remain in G0.
 G2 checkpoint checks the following:
a. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
b. DNA replication (Is the DNA replication completed in the S phase?)

If there is an error, the cell will pause at the G 2 phase and allow
for some repairs. If the damage is within the DNA, the cell cycle
will paused and let the cell complete the DNA replication or repair
it. But if the damage cell is irreparable, the cell will undergo
apoptosis or cell death. It is the self-destruction mechanism of the
cell to ensure that the damaged DNA is not passed on the
daughter cells and also important in preventing cancer. There are
some cells that never or rarely divide like matured cardiac muscle
and nerve cell that permanently retains in G 0.
How long does the cell cycle take?
Different cells take different lengths of time to complete the
cell cycle. A typical human cell might take about 24 hours to
divide, but fast-cycling mammalian cells, like the ones that line the
intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-10 hours when they're
grown in culture.
Different types of cells also split their time between cell
cycle phases in different ways. In early frog embryos, for example,
cells spend almost no time in G1 and G2, and instead rapidly cycle
between S and M phases—resulting in the division of one big cell,
the zygote, into many smaller cells
 Cancer is the result of the unregulated process of the cell cycle due to
the breakdown of the mechanisms that controls the entire process. It
happens during the synthesis phase, wherein the cell cannot determine the
changes in the DNA sequence that code for the specific regulatory
molecules.
Oncogenes are the genes that cause the cell to become cancerous.
Proto-oncogenes are the genes that code for positive regulators during
cell cycle. When these normal genes are altered by mutation it can be an
oncogenes leading to cancer cells formation.
Tumor suppressor genes are healthy normal genes that slow down cell
division, helps to repair DNA mistakes and also cell apoptosis or cell
death. It codes for the negative regulator protein, when activated can
prevent the cell from uncontrolled division. But when tumor suppressor
gene does not work properly, cell division will be out of control and it can
also lead to cancer.
 Cancer remains a national health priority in the country with significant implications for individuals,
families, communities, and the health system. Cancer is the third leading cause of morbidity and mortality in
the country after diseases of the heart and the vascular system. Among Filipino men, the 6 most common sites
of cancer diagnosed in 2010 were lung, liver, colon/rectum, prostate, stomach, and leukemia. Among Filipino
women the 6 most common sites diagnosed were breast, cervix, lung, colon/rectum, ovary and liver.
Furthermore, 189 of every 100,000 Filipinos are afflicted with cancer while four Filipinos die of cancer every
hour or 96 cancer patients every day. (DOH, n.d.)
Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its development and progression are usually
linked to a series of changes in the activity of cell cycle regulators. For example, inhibitors of the cell cycle
keep cells from dividing when conditions aren’t right, so too little activity of these inhibitors can promote
cancer. Similarly, positive regulators of cell division can lead to cancer if they are too active. In most cases,
these changes in activity are due to mutations in the genes that encode cell cycle regulator proteins.
Cancer cells behave differently than normal cells in the body. Many of these differences are related to cell
division behavior. Cancer cells may make their own growth factors, have growth factor pathways that are stuck
in the "on" position, or, in the context of the body, even trick neighboring cells into producing growth factors to
sustain them. Cancer cells also ignore signals that should cause them to stop dividing. Another hallmark of
cancer cells are their "replicative immortality," a fancy term for the fact that they can divide many more times
than a normal cell of the body.