HEALTH SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

DIPLOMA IN KENYA REGISTERED COMMUNITY HEALTH

NURSING (KRCHN).

KMTC

3RD YEARS [YR 3 SEM 2]

MODULE 80: HEALTH SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

Code: HSM 3107; Hours - 70; Credits – 07

Pre-requisite (s): 1
Module Competence

 This Module is designed to enable the

learner apply concepts, skills and
attitude in leadership and management
as to strengthen health care systems at
their level.

2
 Module Outcomes

 By the end of this module, the learner should: -

1. Utilize the principles and practice in leadership
and management to plan and manage health
care services.
2. Apply effective communication and networking
skills in provision of health care services.
3. Apply skills in human resources, financial
resource, commodity and supplies management
in the health care sector
4. Apply and practice the laws that govern health
care services
3
5. Utilize health information system in the
delivery of health services
6. Apply skills in project management
7. Utilize knowledge and skills of quality
assurance in the provision of health
service
8. Perform activities related to monitoring
and evaluation in health service
management
9. Participate in the management of
disasters
4
Module Units

Module Name Hours

Theory Practical
1. Introduction to leadership and
management 8 0
2. Communication and Networking 6 0
3. Management of Resources 20 0
4. Law governing health care practice 4 0
5. Health Information Systems 4 0
6. Project management and planning 10 0
7. Quality Assurance in Health Services 8 0
8. Monitoring and Evaluation 6 0
9. Disaster Management 4 0
5
 Module Content

1. Introduction to leadership and management: Concepts,

Theories, functions and management styles, practices, Mission
and Vision, Core values, Policies, Concepts of change
management, relationship between leadership and
management, organizational behaviour and group dynamics.
2. Communication and networking: public speaking, report writing,
networking, advocacy, negotiation, partnership, inter/intra-sectoral
collaboration, conducting meetings, interpersonal etiquette.
3. Management of resources: Human resources management; concepts,
principles, practices in human resource management, recruitment,
orientation, deployment, Performance management, counselling and
coaching, motivation, delegation, stress management, work climate,
conflict resolution; grievances; Code of Regulations, change
management, time management, human resource development; cycle,
team development and management, continuous professional
development (CPD), staff appraisal, job description, job analysis,
workman compensation Act, disciplinary process; decision-making
process. 6
 Module Content

Occupational hazards, planning meetings, logistic management, time

management, time management techniques, commodities and supplies
management: principles of supplies cycle, procurement and management of
supplies and nurses role in procurement selection, procurement,
distribution and use, inventory management procedures, procurement
procedures, Ethical and Legal implications in commodity and supplies
management, commodity management cycle-assessment, participate in a
procurement process and write a report, manage an inventory
(documentation), public finances: sources of finance (government, donor,
revolving funds, CDF), health care financing, financial procedures and
mechanisms, community, national and international resources for health
care delivery, proposal writing, resource mobilization and management,
budgeting and budget types, the role of parliament, treasury, the controller
and auditor general in public financial management, sources of health care
financing, financial accounting systems and mechanism, accounting
documents: Imprest, vouchers, perdiem, facility improvement fund (FIF),
salary , allowances, vote books, entrepreneurship/opportunities:
educational, scholarship, employment, private practice and other
opportunities, preparation for employment to include letter writing,
resumes (curriculum vitae), preparation for interviews. 7
 Module Content

4. Law governing health care practice: definition of law, Kenya

new constitution and its application on health services; the
different Acts in Health Practice: Public Health Act, Food,
Drugs and Chemical Act, Nurses Act, Workman’s Compensation,
Children and Young Persons, Succession Act, Mental Health Act,
and Criminal Penal, Code Criminality.
5. Health Information Systems: health information; sources,
types, systems, data collection methods, storage and analysis,
information utilization, application, policy development,
decision making.
6. Project management / planning: introduction, principles &
concepts, the importance of planning, project planning &
design, proposal writing, types of plans: strategic plans,
annual operational plans, annual, departmental and
individual plans, project planning process, cycle, situation
analysis, feedback, prioritization, developing implementation
plans, budgeting, technique for public involvement. 8
 Module Content

Community development: Concepts, community work, group work,

case work, community organization: types of community projects
(income Generating, Non Income generating), national projects,
role of the nurse, identification of community needs and
community diagnosis, identification of projects; community
development approaches: multi- disciplinary approach, directive,
non directive, bureaucratic; community participation, community
care: process of project, project identification, planning,
implementation, evaluation.
Quality assurance in health service: quality assurance, concepts,
principles, quality assurance in the healthcare setting, methods
and tools of measuring quality, standards in measuring quality,
standards in measuring quality; management of quality nursing and
health services (definition), nursing care modalities (primary
nursing, team nursing, case assignment, function nursing):
historical development of quality system; process-structure
outcomes (procedure, policies, standards),
9
 Module Content

Monitoring and evaluation: concepts, types, processes, monitoring

and evaluation tools, terms of reference, monitoring tools,
evaluation tools, performance indicators and targets, concepts,
definitions, performance standards, work breakdown schedules
(WBS), work plans, logical framework approach (LFA), reports,
types, formats, characteristics of a good report.
Disaster management: introduction, definitions of terms,
concepts, terminologies & types of disasters, national policy
framework, handling emergency at health facility; phases / stages
of disaster, disaster management cycle: preparedness, response,
mitigation; management of mass accidents.

10
Teaching Strategies

1. Interactive Lectures
2. small group tutorials
3. Group assignments
4. Participatory learning
5. Group Discussions
6. Assignments

11
 Reference

1. Cripps, Gilbert, et al. Guide To Designing And Managing

Community-based Health Financing Schemes In East And
Southern Africa. Partnerships for Health Reform Plus.
2. USAID/Regional Economic Development Services Office
in East and Southern Africa, 2,000.
https://www.phrplus.org/pubs/hts8.pdf (accessed
march, 2005).
3. Donabedian, Avedis, Explorations in Quality Assessment
and Monitoring, Ann Arbor, MI: Health Administration
Press, 1980, pp, 5-6
4. Liebler, J.G. and McConnell, C.R. (2016), Management
Principles for Health care organizations. (1 st Edition).
Elsevier Ltd, Washington, USA
5. E-book. Jones and Barttlet
12
LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT

13
.

14
COMMUNICATION AND
NETWORKING

15
INTRODUCTION:
 The term communication is derived from the Latin word
communis, meaning common and thus when we communicate
we try to establish a commonness of ideas with someone.
 Communication can be defined as the process by which
people share ideas, experience, knowledge and feelings
through the transmission of symbolic messages.
 It’s the giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions
or ideas by writing, speech or visual means or any
combination.
 Communication is the exchange of information between two
or more persons who are interacting with each other in such a
way the information is understood.
 Communication skills: the ability to convey or share ideas
and feelings effectively.
16
Communication is a Series of Experiences of

Hearing Smell

Seeing
Touch
Taste
Types of Communication
1. Formal Communication
 This is the official way of communicating with people in
an organization. The communication may be passed
orally or in written form.
 The messenger flows from top to bottom e.g. from the
top management to staff at the lower levels following an
hierarchy or chain or command in the particular
organization.
 Formal communication flows in three directions namely:
- [Direction of Communication flow in an Organization]
1) Vertical Communication
2) Horizontal Communication
3) Diagonal Communication
18
Vertical communication [downward and upward]
Downward – directed
 Communication flows from the top management to the
lowest level of employees.
 Main purpose - to direct, instruct and evaluate, provide
information on goals/policies of organization.
 This type of communication is authoritative and can lead
to poor morale, low productivity, frustrates employees,
kills creativity/innovativeness of low level employees
Upwards - directed upwards
 Communication flows from staff at lower level and middle
levels to the top management, to managers, supervisors
 Forms of Communication include: memos, reports,
meetings, informal discussions etc.
19
Horizontal communication/lateral
 People of the same level/status
 Forms of communication includes: meetings, seminars
 Helps coordinate, problem solving
 Helps form relationships with peers, direct contact, reduce

communication inaccuracy
Diagonal communication
 Tasks frequently arise which involves more than one department and

there is often no obvious line of authority through which a manager

may follow.
 A manager may be dealing with a colleague more senior/junior to

him in another department.

 Relies heavily on cooperation/respect between parties concerned.

External communication
 Occurs between managers and people outside the organization
 Customers, suppliers, government officers, other interest groups
 Helps link organization to the external world.
20
2. Informal communication
 An informal and unofficial form of communication between
groups of an organization. The messages are discussed casually
and are not recognized by the management.
 Informal communication is also known as “grapevine’’
 The grapevine is a form of Information containing some half
truths.
 Channel that disseminates news/gossips and rumors within an
organization
 Its fast pace, rapid and unpredictable
 Source of very confidential information/feedback
 As a result failure of formal system of communication,
carelessness
 Letters left on the desk unattended, loud voices from closed
doors,
 It’s a natural activity. 21
Grapevine communication
 Communication that has been released prematurely but its
source can be traced and has some truths.
 Used by management to test waters particularly when
implementing new policies that have adverse effects on
employees i.e. retrenchment.
 The management is thereby able to weight the pros and
cons of policy before implementing.
Rumour
 Information arise out of speculations. This happens when
people are kept in suspense and do not know what is
happening.
 The source cannot be traced
 Truth cannot be established
22
3. Unconscious Communication
 Its where a wrong meaning has been transferred because
of the way communication has been conveyed
unconsciously to the receiver.
 Usually the sender of the message is unaware that their
behavior is sending wrong signals e.g. if you appear quite
casual when giving important information the recipient
will misinterpret the importance of the information
because of the manner in which you speak.
 Its important for health workers to be aware of their
unconscious communication

23
Note:
 There is no organization that can exist without
communication.
 Organizational communication involves is the exchange of
information within the organization.
 In any organization, there exists both formal and informal
communication
 The role of the manager is to use positive informal
communication to the maximum for the benefit of
organization. He/she must discourage any which may not
work in the interest of organization success.
 There is need to establish proper formal channels and use
them for all information that employees need to know.

24
Channels of communication:
 Channel: This the medium used to convey the message from
the source (sender) to the destination (receiver). (e.g. speech,
memos, telephones).
 The communication channel should suit the needs of the
audience receiving it.
 Direct channels - This includes the verbal and non-verbal
channels of communication.
 Indirect channels - Includes body language that is
subconsciously recognized by the receiver but not under the
direct influence of the sender.
 Communication is achieved through three main channels
(methods) namely
1. Verbal communication
2. Non verbal communication
25
Verbal communication
 It is expressed through face to face conversations,
telephone calls, radio and television broadcasts
 You communicate verbally when giving patients report to
another member of staff and when sharing health
messages with clients.
 Verbal communication involves the art of talking and
listening. The tone of voice can communicate feelings and
emotions that are as significant as words being spoken. It
is important to use words that do not offend in any way.
Avoid using jargon, medical or other words that the
patient may not be familiar to.
Non- verbal communication
 This is what is commonly known as body position, gestures
and facial expressions 26
 It is also referred to as body language because it can be used to
communicate as much as words. The most common body signs
which can be observed from clients / patients include winking,
beckoning, crying, wriggling, facial expressions yawning,
restlessness, dilated pupils, constricted pupils’ staring at a fixed
point. It is often through body language that we express our
attitude towards an issue a person or persons behavior. Its
important for all nurses to be skilled in interpreting the body
language of patients and clients. This will help you understand the
needs and concerns more carefully. You must also be aware of
your own body language and the signals that you may be
unknowingly sending to your patients and clients.
 The following show some meanings
 Beckoning- calling for help
 Raising hand- calling for attention
 Laughing- elated mood or being amused
 Restlessness- discomfort or feeling pain
27
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
 This involves circulating messages through the printing medium.

This may be through examples newspapers, newsletters, posters,

letters, circulars, memoranda and through electronic media like
fax, e- mails and telegrams. Some of the written communications
found in health facilities include policy documents, procedure
manuals, circulars, memoranda, letters, posters, journals,
patients care plans and observation charts.
Factors To Consider before Selecting a Channel
 Speed - the urgency of the communication
 Accuracy - will the information be received accurately
 Safety - the risk of losing the communication in transits
 Record - is it necessary to have a record of the communication
 Impression - the reaction of the recipients in terms of language,

quality of paper, print etc.

 Cost - all element of cost must be considered
 Secrecy - will other people have access to message.
28
Principles of communication
 Principle of clarity – Message must be clear.
 Principle of attention – Full attention to
message.
 Principle of timeliness – Right time.
 Principle of emotional appeal – Look for pegs
on which to hang the message i.e. Ideas relating
to receivers personal interest.
 Principle of organization – arrange and present
facts and ideas logically.

29
Benefits of effective communication
 It promotes trust.
 It promotes team member loyalty.
 It enhances team member engagement
 It improves teamwork.
 It improves productivity.
 Communication fuels innovation.
 Resolves issues.
 It creates better client relationships.
30
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
 Barriers are factors which prevent effective
communication
 Barriers to effective communication may be
due to six elements of communication
process:
 Source
 Message
 Channel
 Receiver
 Effects
 Social setting 31
Barriers resulting from source
The sender should have the qualities that facilitate effective
communication. The sender should have sound understanding of his
audience and a good knowledge of his subject.
1. Semantic barriers - Failure to recognize social cultural and
psychological factors which can lead to communication
breakdown. e.g. when addressing illiterate peasants one has to
put oneself in their situation to be able to appreciate their
culture, values, perceptions, worries and hopes
2. Physical barriers - these may attributed to climate e.g. very
cold or hot weather, wind, noise etc.
3. System overload - may occur when an individual receives too
much information at the same time.
4. Lack of privacy and confidentiality
5. Language barrier - the sender should appropriate language
according to the level and age of the receiver 32
Barriers affecting message
 If the massage do not have the qualities of a message for
effective communication there will be communication
break down. To avoid failure in communication one should
address the following factors:-
1. The message should be addressed in simple language
2. It must be problem centered
3. It should be culturally relevant and not offensive to
values and beliefs of the community and individuals.
Religious believes are particularly important
4. The message should fall within socio-economic abilities of
the audience
5. The message must demonstrate that it is much more
important and beneficial to do what is proposed in the
message than what the message opposes 33
Barriers resulting from the receiver
 If the receiver of the message is inadequately prepared
physically, socially, and psychologically about the venue and time
of giving the health message, he/she may come late
 If the receiver does not know the benefits to gain from the
message he/ she may have little interest to listen to the message
 If the receiver does not understand the language
 If the sender stammers and speaks inaudibly
 If the message is received in a noisy environment
 If the message is transmitted against religious beliefs of the
community
 If the sender does not know the socio-economic status of the
community
 If the message contains too much information
 If the message takes a longtime to reach the receiver the
audience will change their priorities
34
Barriers resulting from social setting
 The selected venue for receiving the message has
different posters which are not relevant to the health
message given.
 The sender does not consider the social status of the
audience
 The sender of the message must consider the age and
the marital status of the audience when planning the
venue
 The sender does not consider the cultural beliefs of
the audience
 The message is not action oriented

35
Barriers affecting communication channel
 If the sender speaks with a low voice that the receiver can't hear
well.
 When the media for communication is selected without
considering the socio economic status of the audience
 If you select a verbal communication channel without considering
the age of the receiver, the message content, language sex etc.
Barriers affecting the impact/effects of communication
 If the sender fails to use appropriate language and to
prepare the audience on the importance of the message
for improvement of their health status
 If the receiver of the message is emotionally disturbed
 The sender of the message may fail to involve the
audience in the planning phase and therefore disregards
the cultural beliefs of the community
36
Barriers affecting feedback
 If the sender of the message does not clarify all the
points to enable the receiver understand it.
 The sender of the message use symbols which the
receiver interprets wrongly without asking for
clarifications
 The sender may speak in un audible voice
 The receiver of the message may have a negative or
different attitude towards the message given
 The sender may send the message by verbal
communication without requesting the receiver to
have a pen and a paper to write down main points.
 The sender of message may take long time talking to
the receiver and as result they become bored 37
SUMMARY OF BARRIERS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Establishing a common bond through communication does not always come
easily. There are many barriers that make it difficult for communication to
achieve its goal. Some of these barriers are:
 Age/status differences: When the sender and the receiver are of different
age groups or social standings, communication may suffer. Old men, for
example, may not want to listen to a young sender/extensionist, depending
on the message. A lawyer may not want to hear what a peasant farmer has to
say.
 Language: The use of language that is not understood by the audience will
stop communication in its tracks. For example, the use of sheng’ may be
appropriate for urban young people, but not a rural adult audience. The
audience may also use language in a way that is not understood by the
sender/ extensionist, e.g., the use of riddles.
 Political differences: People of different political orientations may find it
difficult to accommodate messages/ideas from each other.
 Communication overload: Too many messages at one time may be so
confusing that people cannot comprehend them.
 Mistrust: If either or both the sender and the receiver do not trust each
other, communication may be delayed or halted. 38
 Timing: The message may be too late for effective action, or the audience
may not have time to listen to it.
 Competition for attention: Everybody wants to talk, or other distractions
interfere with attention.
 Incomplete messages: When only part of the message is delivered, either
through ignorance or oversight, this causes confusion.
 Personal traits: The know – it – all, negative personality, inferiority and
superiority complexes, individual mannerisms, and so on, can all cut
communication short.
 SEMANTICS - Definition of words, Choice of words - When to use certain
channel.
 Poor choice, Use of channels - When to use certain channel
 Physical distractions
 Noise, physical, psychological
 Effects of emotions
 Perceptions
 Filtering, screening, negative information
 Evaluating the source
 Absence of feedback, poor feedback
 Poor listening 39
TO OVERCOME BARRIERS: [Barrier solutions]
 Learn to use feedback well.
 Be sensitive to receiver’s point of view.
 Listen to UNDERSTAND!
 Use direct, simple language, or at least use language
appropriate to the receiver.
 Use proper channel(s). Learn to use channels well.
 Learn to use supportive communication, not defensive
communication.
 Reinforce words with actions
 Present information in orderly/systematic manner
 Understand/manage your audience
 Know content of delivery
 Write clearly
 Avoid information under load/overload
 Provide right environment free from noise
 Plan communication carefully
 PUBLIC SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION
 Public Speaking is a ‘formal’ face-to-face communication method where a
person(s) uses the medium of speech to Inform and/or Influence a group of
listeners (an audience).
 Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a
structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain
the listeners.
 Public speaking is commonly understood as a kind of face-to-face speaking
between individuals and audience for the purpose of communication.
 Note that public speaking is not just what we traditionally think of – giving
a speech in front of a large audience – but also any time someone speaks
to members of the public or the press.
 This could include conducting interviews, but also speaking to citizens,
even one-on-one at a community event. When you think of it this way, we
are ALL public speakers.
 Public Speaking is any formal situation where you use speech to inform
and/ or influence an audience face-to-face. 41
Importance of Public Speaking:
Reasons Why is Public Speaking Important?
 Helps in building confidence
 Helps in making social connections
 Helps in proper team management
 Helps in enhancing one's leadership skills
 Helps in developing vocabulary and fluency in the language
 Recognition in the professional sphere

Public speaking is a great life skill to have as it is necessary in many different

areas.
 Class projects
 Job/internship presentations
 Club/organization meetings or events
 Speech at a family gathering such as a wedding, birthday, anniversary, etc.

Examples of public speaking can include…

 Delivering lectures, seminars and training
 Making presentations
 Debating
 Conducting demonstrations 42
Key Terms:
 Gesture: A movement or position of the hand, arm, body, head
or face that is expressive of an idea, opinion, emotion, etc.
 Stage presence: The ability to command the attention of an
audience by the impressiveness of one's manner or appearance.
This term is usually used in describing actors in a play or movie.
 Body language: The gestures, postures and facial expressions by
which a person manifests various physical, mental or emotional
states and communicates nonverbally with others.
 Pitch: The quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations
producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a tone.
 Tone: The quality or character of sound; a particular quality, way
of sounding, modulation, or intonation of the voice as expressive
of some meaning, feeling, spirit, etc.

43
 Conversation: is oral exchange of sentiments,
observations, opinions, or ideas.
 Conversation is interactive communication between two or
more people. The development of conversational skills and
etiquette is an important part of socialization. The
development of conversational skills in a new language is
a frequent focus of language teaching and learning.
 This is a talk, especially an informal one, between two or
more people, in which news and ideas are exchanged.

44
Differences between Public Speaking and Conversation:
1. Public speaking is a process of speaking to a group of people
in a structured, deliberate manner while conversation is a
form of interactive, spontaneous communication between
two or more people who are following rules of etiquette..
2. In public speaking speeches involve thoughts which are
logically organized and structured where else conversation
may wonder around the subject.
3. Public speaking has formalized language while conversation
may involve use of slang or offer poor grammar.
4. Public speeches are often delivered in international settings
and context while conversation may arise spontaneously.

45
Public Speaking Opportunities:
At work
 Selling your ideas
 Technical presentations
 Customer Presentations and Reviews
Daily Life
 School Board Meetings
 Town Zoning Board Meetings
 PTA Meetings
 Boy and Girl Scout Meetings

46
Skills required for Public Speaking
The following three skills are required for effective Public
Speaking:
1. Planning & Preparation
2. Positive Non-Verbal Communications
3. Confidence
Planning & Preparation
 Before you can start to plan and prepare the message and
the structure for your Public Speaking activity you will
need to consider the:
o Audience (Who you are trying to inform and/or influence)
o Purpose (What you want to achieve by informing and/or

influencing your audience)

o Timings (How long you have to inform and or influence

your audience) 47
 Public Speaking can only inform and/or influence an audience if it
is delivered in a structured way!
 The best way to ensure that your Public Speaking activity is
structured is to plan & prepare notes that can be used as a guide
when speaking.
 Your notes should be headings and key words bullet-point format
and not a word for word script of everything you want to say.
 When you are planning & preparing notes for your Public Speaking
activity you should avoid writing an ad verbatim (word for word)
script of what you are going say to read from. Instead you should
look to use headings and key words in bullet-point format to help
you trigger what you want to say.
 It is actually incredibly difficult to speak effectively face-to-face
from just reading from a script. When people do speak from
reading a script it is usually a combination of memorizing lines
while using teleprompters rather than paper to display a script for
reference. 48
Non-Verbal Communication
 Public Speaking isn’t just about what you say;
It’s also about how you say it!
 When undertaking any Public Speaking activity
you need to be mindful of:
o Your Posture & Body Movements
o Your Facial Movements & Making Regular Eye Contact
o Your Voice Pitch & Tone
 Although planning and preparation are extremely important, all the planning
and preparation in the world will not help if you are unable to project positive
body language, and make effective use of the pitch and tone of your voice.
 Like in any face-to-face communications, Public Speaking isn’t just about
what you say; It’s also about how you say it!
 The vast majority of the information we receive in face-to-face
communications in non-verbal sources. Around 70% of the information we
receive in face-to-face communications comes from body language and around
23% comes from voice pitch and tone. Only around 7% of the information we
receive in face-to-face communications comes from the words we say.

49
Non-Verbal Communication

Positive Examples Negative Examples

Of Non-Verbal Communication Of Non-Verbal Communication
Head Looking Up Head Looking Down

A Smile A Frown

Small Hand & Arm Exaggerated Hand

Gestures & Arm Gestures

Free Arms Folded Arms

Keeping To One Area Wondering About

Of The Stage The Stage

Making Eye Contact Only Focusing Your Eye

With Various Members Contact On One Or Two
Of The Audience Members Of The Audience
Confidence:
 After a successful planning and preparation learn to
without any Hesitation, Repetition or Deviation.
 Be able speak on your topic without being successfully
challenged by a member of your audience for either
Hesitation, Repetition or Deviation.

51
Aspects of Public Speaking:
 Voice
 Presentation
o Stage presence
o Eye contact
o Body language
o Physical appearance
 Words

 Studies have shown that:

o 7% of any message is communicated with words.
o 38% is relayed by voice (tone, accent, volume, rhythm).
o 55% is communicated by non-verbal body language.

52
Voice:
 The sound produced in a person's larynx and uttered through the mouth, as
speech or song.
 Voice is the sounds, especially speech, that a living thing makes using their
mouth or the ability to use vocal chords and air to make sounds.
 The ability to speak or sing. The sounds that you make when you speak, or the
ability to make these sounds.
Characteristics of a powerful voice:
 There are three characteristics of a powerful voice. When we speak, most of
us need to focus on being: Lower, Louder, Slower
1. Lower: Lower the pitch of your voice. People generally don’t respond well to
high-pitched or shrill voices.
2. Louder: Project your voice to the back of the room. Practice on the
microphone prior to speaking and remember to position it correctly.
Remember to articulate clearly and do not slur your words together. In order
to be heard, hold your head up and speak from the diaphragm. Open your
mouth wide.
3. Slower: Don’t forget to breathe, pause and add emphasis where needed.
Most of us tend to speed up when we get nervous. You are probably speaking
more quickly than you think. 53
o Use voice as a tool
o Use vocal variety
o Keep voice steady

Use voice as a tool

 Remember that your voice is the best tool you have. Listeners like to hear enthusiasm
& energy in your voice, but not too much.
Use vocal variety:
o Different tones of voice, appropriate pauses and changes in pace help hold an

audience’s attention.
o Vary your delivery rate (the speed at which you talk).
o Mix long & short sentences.
o Vary the tone and volume of your voice. Nothing puts people to sleep faster than

someone who speaks in a monotone voice.

o Don’t be afraid to be silent. Even brief moments of silence can be useful in adding

emphasis and holding your audience’s attention.

Keep your voice steady.
 Sometimes when people are speaking, their voices rise throughout their sentences so
that it sounds like they are asking a question instead of making a statement: “I’m
really happy to be here today? Take care to keep your voice steady and raise it at
appropriate times – when you ARE asking a question or when you want to emphasize a
particular word. 54
Public Speaking Scenarios:
 Broadcast journalists either on radio or television, or local
speakers. What makes their voices so effective? How do
they use their voice as a tool?

Check the video below:

 “”Five Aspects of a Powerful Speaking Voice” -
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wE7QJSO449o

55
STAGE PRESENCE:
 Imagine what people see
 Be confident
 Keep energy high

Your voice, if used properly, will help you to convey your message. However, as a speaker, your
audience will also take cues from your physical presence, how you carry yourself. Imagine if you
could see yourself as others see you – just on the basis of your appearance and how you carry
yourself. How would they describe you? How would you want them to describe you?
 Imagine what people see: The key is to develop sensitivity and awareness of the image you
present. Know ahead of time what you want the impression of the audience to be. And
remember, you don’t get a second chance to make a first impression and negative
impressions are hard to overcome.
 Be confident: For one, you need to project confidence. Even on the days you feel less than
confident, think about some of your strengths, what you are most proud of, and let it show
through your voice, face and the way you carry yourself.
 Keep your energy high. You don’t won’t to seem overly enthusiastic but you do want to
appear happy to be there and excited to share your thoughts with the audience. By the end
of your speech, you want them to be as enthusiastic as you are about your cause.
Remember that their audience may already have preconceived notions about who they are based
on the fact that they are men / women. How are men / women generally perceived in your
country as speakers? As political activists? Remind participants that they have to be even
stronger to overcome what are often negative perceptions and stereotypes.
56
EYE CONTACT:
 Maintain eye contact
 5 seconds per person
 -or- stare at their forehead or just above

 One form of body language is eye contact or the lack thereof. Be sure to
communicate and make contact with your eyes – they reveal your sincerity and
strength and tell someone how accessible and approachable you are. What do
you think of people who won’t look you in the eye? They may seem
untrustworthy or disinterested or they may seem like they are lacking
confidence. That isn’t the image that you want to convey.
 Make eye contact with one person at a time and hold it for about five seconds
before moving to the next person and slowly make your way across the room
 If you are too nervous to look people in the eye, try and identify a few pairs of
“friendly eyes” – people who seem to be sending you encouragement and
appreciating what you have to say, to make eye contact with. If you are still too
nervous, you could also look at their foreheads or just above their heads. They
will still think you are looking them in the eye if you do it properly.
 Remember to adapt this presentation to fit the context in your country. For
example, it may not be appropriate to look people in the eye, depending on the
country. 57
BODY LANGUAGE:
o Posture/stance
o Hand gestures

 Remember that 55% of any message is communicated by non-verbal body language.

Effective public speakers should have a strong presence. You are watched even before
you speak, from the moment you enter the room to the moment you walk to the front
to speak so pay attention to your body language right from the beginning.
 Practice good posture and don’t slouch your shoulders. Your posture is important. Do
not lean on the lectern or clutch it for security; use it occasionally to rest your hands.
Standing up straight and tall projects confidence. Avoid making people nervous by
“dancing” or shifting the balance of your weight from side to side. It is good practice
to place your legs about shoulder-length apart and if sitting, to sit on the edge of your
chair.
 If hand gestures are natural for you when speaking, use them appropriately. Keep your
hands in the “hand box” – roughly the middle section of your body to avoid wildly
gesturing and distracting the audience from your words. Also avoid the temptation to
use your hands for other purposes – such as engaging in distracting habits such as
touching your hair or playing with a pen. You may not even notice you are doing it, so
watch yourself in a mirror while practicing your speech to make sure your hands are
complementing your words and not distracting from them. Another idea would be to
have someone videotape you practicing your speech and watch it afterwards. 58
BODY LANGUAGE:
 Other gestures
 Walking and talking
 Smile!
 Use your whole body, not just your hands, to convey your
message. A raised eyebrow or shrug of the shoulder gets
across your view as effectively as a nod demonstrates
affirmation or a shake of the head conveys disagreement.
 If you are “walking and talking,” pace yourself so you
aren’t moving too quickly. You don’t want to look like you
are pacing on the stage.
 Don’t forget to smile!
 Master on interpreting Non-Verbal Communication.

59
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE:
 Jewelry
 Colors
 Clothes
 Shoes
 Hair/scarf
 Makeup

 While many of us wish that our physical appearance

weren’t so important, the truth is that it does contribute
to the overall impression our audience has of us.

60
GOOD AND BAD SPEAKING HABITS:
 Public speaking is a continuous learning cycle. It is not
something that you can learn and master overnight and then
you’re good to go for the rest of your life. Good public
speaking requires you to be persistent and to develop and
adopt habits that make public speaking a normal part of your
work.
 Good example: Standing straight, making eye contact –
introduce yourself loudly and clearly stating your name,
where you are from, and purpose for speaking (convincing
the group why you should be nominated for a leadership
position).
 Bad example: Wringing your hands, speaking softly,
stuttering, and looking at the ground, start into a speech
about why you should be nominated for a leadership position.
61
Good Habits of Great Public Speakers
 Keep it simple.
 Keep it short.
 Use metaphors, not explanations.
 Don't dump.
 Try the problem/solution model.
 Don't use meaningless modifiers.
 Plan.
 Be more than brief. Be interesting.
Bad Public Speaking Habits
 Not Performing an Audience Analysis.
 Thinking of Yourself Instead of Your Listeners.
 Failing to Launch Your Speech
 Relying on Weak Body Language
 Using Vocal Skills that Lack Expressiveness
 Playing It Too Straight.
 Keeping Your Distance. 62
PREPARING YOUR REMARKS: BEFORE YOU START
Remarks: an expression of opinion or judgment. something that someone says or
writes to express an opinion or idea comment
Best Practices for preparing remarks:
Know your audience
Know the occasion
Know the room

Before you even put your pen to paper, you should first consider three things –
your audience, the nature of the overall event during which your speech will take
place, and the venue in which it will take place.
Know your audience and target your speech to their interests and experiences.
Know something about their background (religion, ethnicity, age, education,
etc.). Relate to them as much as possible without losing your message in the
process.
Know the occasion, including the venue and time of day, and how your talk
(speech, panel, etc.) fits into the larger program. Do your research on the host
organization and key people that will be present.
Know the room, if possible. This will help you feel more comfortable and
practice with the actual space in mind. It is a different dynamic when you talk in
a lecture hall as compared to a roundtable setting, classroom environment,
outside, etc. This will also help you to determine whether or not to use visual
aids.
63
WRITING REMARKS:
o Write like you speak
o Outline form
o Avoid technical terms
o Avoid words that are hard to say
 While it is generally advisable not to read your written remarks
word for word when you speak, it is still best to put something in
writing as you prepare for your speech. Remember to write like
you speak, not like you would normally write an essay.
 Put your remarks into an outline. Make sure your key points are
easy to read and then practice so that you are comfortable filling
in the details without having to read them. Underline, bold and
highlight key thoughts. If you print out your notes to use during
your speech, be sure to use a large font, double space your
sentences and leave big borders. End each page with a complete
thought so that you don’t lose focus or miss making a point when
you turn the page. 64
 Be sure to avoid technical terms or words that are not commonly
understood or used by your audience. Watch out for alliteration
and words that can trip you up when you are speaking. Sound out
difficult to pronounce words, such as names of people and places,
and be sure you are comfortable saying them before your speech.
 In terms of the structure of your speech, start by telling people
what you are going to say, then tell them and finally close by
summarizing what you told them. This may seem obvious, but
you’d be surprised how many people don’t follow this rule. You
really want people to remember your message and repeating your
major themes throughout the speech is a good way to do it.
Structure:
Tell them
Summarize
what you Then, tell
what you
will tell them
told them
them

65
OPENING:
Tell them what you will tell them
o Address purpose/main objective(s)
o Relate to audience
o Establish credibility
o Grab attention

 During your opening remarks, you need to tell your audience what you are going to tell
them. Give them a sense of where you are going with your remarks.
 As you develop your speech, consider its purpose and main objectives. What are you trying
to accomplish? Refer to your objectives in your introduction. Example: “I hope to convince
you to support the proposed legislation on violence against women.”
 The introduction is also a good time to demonstrate that you have done your research –
that you know your audience. Try to find a way to relate and connect with them and don’t
forget to tailor your presentation to their needs.
 Use the introduction to establish your credibility. Tell them why you are in a good position
to talk about the subject of your speech. For example: “Having been a teacher for the last
20 years, I’ve learned a lot about the important role early education can play in the lives
of our children.”
 Include something in the introduction that will grab their attention. You will be surprised
how quickly an audience will stop listening if they don’t quickly hear something of interest.
66
BODY:
Then, tell them
o Main points
o Organization/transitions
o Examples and evidence
o Visual aids
o Anticipate questions

 As you prepare the body of your speech, consider the main points that you want to get across. Be
sure to focus on just a few key points. The shorter the speech, the fewer the points, but even with
long speeches, it is better to go into more detail on a few themes than to try to cover too many
topics.
 Once you have established your key points, consider how best to organize them (chronological,
topical, etc.). How will you transition between your main points? Think about the flow of your
presentation and how to keep the attention of your audience. Does the body of your speech support
the opening? Does the body build to a logical conclusion?
 What examples or evidence do you have to support your main points? Don’t forget to include
important statistics, real life stories, quotes, etc.
 What visual aids will support your main ideas? Don’t use them just for the sake of using them, but if
they help to illustrate a point, or make things more personal or engaging, they can be useful.
Remember to consider the space in which you will be delivering your remarks to determine whether
it is practical or possible to use visual aids. Be sure to inform the event organizer if you plan to use
visual aids that require equipment (such as power point presentations) so they can be sure to have it
ready. 67
CLOSING:
Summarize what you told them
 Summarize
 Tie back to your opening
 Call to action

 This is your opportunity to make a final case for your

research, policy, campaign, etc. How will you summarize
your main points? How will you tie the closing back to how
you began the speech? What’s your call to action? What do
you want/need the audience to do (vote for you, support a
cause, tell others, vote for your draft law, etc.)?

68
BEFORE SPEAKING:
o Rehearse
o Anticipate questions
o Bring remarks
o Eat/drink with caution
o Have water handy
o Relax!

 Now that you have drafted your speech, there are several things you can do to help prepare for
your big moment.
 Rehearse so you are comfortable with the material. Practice with friends or tape yourself if you
have time and the necessary resources. Get feedback and seek to incorporate it. The more you
practice, the more comfortable you will become.
 If there will be a question and answer session after your speech, try to anticipate what
questions your audience will ask. Be prepared to address them. While you cannot anticipate all
questions, you can be prepared for those that are most likely.
 Bring a copy of your remarks.
 Eat and drink with caution. Avoid a big meal before speaking. Dairy products like milk can
create a lot of phlegm which may make it harder to speak. Carbonated beverages may make
you belch. Avoid alcohol.
 Have water handy and take a sip if your throat gets scratchy or dry.
Breath deeply and try to relax. This may be the hardest advice to follow but there are ways to
69

get over your fear of public speaking.
CONTROLLING YOUR NERVES:
 Use nervous energy to your advantage
 Anticipate negative side effects to lessen their impact

 Being nervous in a public speaking situation is normal, natural and

even helpful. Adrenaline increases the human heart rate, pumps
blood quicker and gets more oxygen to body tissue. This heightens
mental activity and provides you with energy.
 Control and prepare for nervousness. While nervous energy is
positive, nerves and their accompanying behaviour are not. The
negative side effects range from sweating profusely to heaving
uncontrollably shaky hands.
 If your throat is scratchy, clear it away from the microphone. Better
yet, have an unwrapped cough drop in your pocket. To prevent dry
mouth, use lip balm on your lips prior to speaking. Have a drink
available if your voice breaks, remembering that ice water constricts
the throat. Water at room temperature or warm beverages are better.
70
MEDIA INTERVIEWS:
 Consider your audience
 Always refer back to your message
 Formats:
o Newspaper
o Radio
o Television
 Preparing for a media interview is similar to preparing for a
public speech with some exceptions. As with a public speech,
you need to consider your potential audience and adjust your
remarks accordingly. Each of the three formats (newspaper,
radio and television) require a slightly different approach. No
matter the format, remember to always tie in your response to
questions to your “message”.

71
Newspaper interview:
 Never go “off the record”. These are remarks that are not meant to
be published or shared with anyone else. They are meant to provide
a journalist with information or an explanation. Unfortunately, not
every journalist will respect your wish to keep this information
private so assume that anything you say will become public.
 Have the journalist read back your quotes to you to make sure they
have been recorded correctly and reflect your intentions.
Radio interviews:
 Never give a radio interview while you are distracted. If you are
doing the interview over the phone, be sure to be in a quiet room
where you can focus.
 Act as if you are on television.
 Try to repeat the question back to the journalist to make sure you
understand what she or he is asking you.

72
Television interviews:
 How you dress is vital as you will be on camera.
 Consider the location of the interview. If the
journalist/camera crew will come to you, consider getting
out of your office. Consider how the location of your
remarks can reinforce or detract from your message.
 Suggest that the journalist include a visual of some sort
that will support the message you are trying to get across.
 Don’t forget to smile, when appropriate.
 Enunciate your words carefully and be slightly (but not
overly) energetic. You want to convey strength,
enthusiasm and confidence.

73
DEBATES:
 Preparation is key
 Pause to gather your thoughts
 Keep time limits in mind
 Respond to the question you want to answer
 There may also be occasions where you participate in debates or public
forums. This may be a local event during which multiple perspectives and
policy options are discussed, or a bigger, more formal debate between
candidates. Regardless, it is important to prepare in advance so that you can
respond to questions that arise and to your opponents comments. Remember
to reiterate your message as often as possible during the debate.
Preparation could include:
 Coming up with15 questions that are likely to be asked and preparing and
practicing responses.
 Researching your opponent’s debate history and style.
 Putting together arguments to counter what your opponent is likely to say.
 Thinking through both positive points to stress about yourself/your position
and points that
 challenge your opponent’s position/record/etc.
74
 Finding statistics to back up your points as well as stories
that show the personal side of the issues.
Remember:
 Preparation is key. The more prepared , the more
confident you will be and the better you’ll do.
 Pause to gather your thoughts before responding to a
question. A moment of silence is perfectly acceptable.
 Keep any time limits in mind when responding. If you only
have 30 seconds to respond, you will need to get to the
point quickly.
 Respond to the question you want to answer, even if it’s
not exactly what was asked. Remember to refer back to
your message.

75
Ways to Improve Your Public Speaking Skills:
1. Watch the Experts
 Watch clips from great public speakers and find out what
they do right. Pick up on their posture, tone, volume,
hand gestures, eye contact, attire, any audio/visual aids,
message, and more!
2. Dress to Impress
 Be sure to look the part. Know your audience and don’t
fall short of their expectations. If it is a formal event, be
sure to look the part. Remember it is always best to
overdress than to underdress.
3. Visit the Space Before Presenting
 Get to know the space that you will be presenting in. Test
out any audio and visual aids that you will be using.
76
4. Know Your Material:
 Be sure to have a strong knowledge base for the material
that you are covering. This will be helpful if a question
arises about the topic.
 Also, know your presentation! Know the content and order
of your slides.
5. Content
There are 6 C’s to consider:
 Clear
 Concise
 Concrete
 Coherent
 Complete
 Correct
Tip: Try to share one thing no one knows 77
6. Body Language and Personality
 Watch yourself in the mirror when you are practicing
or record yourself on camera. Be aware of your body
language, what is it conveying to your audience?
 Let your personality shine through! Some speakers
find it useful to share a personal story that is
relevant and appropriate.
7. Practice, Practice, Practice
Run through your presentation on your own. Pay
attention to your:
 Voice- Tone, inflection, volume, speed, pauses
 Filler Words- ‘um,’ ‘you know,’ ‘like’
 Areas of difficulty in your presentation
78
8. Get Feedback:
 Share your presentation with a friend, classmate,
professor, or anyone who is willing to give you feedback.
Adjust your presentation with their feedback and then get
feedback again.
9. Prepare for the Unexpected
Are you ready for:
 No Internet
 Lost PowerPoint
 Cell phone ringing
 Late entrance
 Different size audience than expected
 Forgot handouts
 Lost index cards
 Too many questions 79
10.Do’s and Don’ts
Do: Don’t:
● Always repeat ● make excuses
audience questions ● read your slides or
● Give audiences verbatim from notes
something to walk ● defer answering
away with questions
● Respect your
● overload your slides
audience’s time
Building confidence and Conquering Fears
Plan and Prepare
 Proper preparation and rehearsal can help to reduce fear by
about 75%.
 Proper breathing techniques can further reduce this fear by
15%.
 Your mental state accounts for the remaining 10%.
10 Steps to Reduce Speaking JITTERS (Nervousness,
Scaredness, Uneasiness, Agitation):
1. Know the Room
 Arrive early and walk around the room
 Stand up front by lectern or podium
 Test out the microphone if using one
 Walk around where the audience will be seated
 Walk from where you will be seated to the place where you
will be speaking 81
2. Know the Audience:
 Try to greet some of the audience and chat with them
 Friends are easier to talk to than a group of strangers

3. Know Your Material

 Research topics thoroughly
 Provide specific examples and scenarios to illustrate your point
 Read your material aloud and get a feel for how it sounds as it

is explained
 Be mindful and monitor your speed when going over your

presentation
4. Learn How to Relax
 Sit comfortably with your back straight
 Breathe in slowly, hold your breath for 4 to 5 seconds, and

then slowly exhale

 To relax your facial muscles, open your mouth wide and eyes

wide, and then close them tightly. Pause and open them again.
82
5. Visualize Yourself Speaking
 Imagine yourself walking confidently to the podium
 Imagine yourself speaking, your voice loud, clear,
and assured
 When you visualize yourself as successful, you will
be successful
6. Realize People Want You to Succeed
 Audiences want speakers to be interesting,
informative, and entertaining
 They want you to succeed, not to fail
7. Don't Apologize for Being Nervous
 Most nervousness does not show
 If you don't say anything, nobody may notice
83
8. Concentrate on Your Message:
 Your nervous feelings will ease as you focus your attention
away from your fears.
 Concentrate on your message and your audience, not
yourself.
9. Turn Nervousness into Positive Energy
 The same nervous energy that causes stage fright can be
an asset to you
 Harness it, and transform it into vitality and enthusiasm
 Learn a quick stress-reducing routine for relaxing your
neck, shoulder and facial muscles just before giving your
talk
 Transform this energy into vitality and enthusiasm in
delivering your speech
84
10. Gain Experience
 Experience builds confidence, which is the key to
effective speaking. Most beginning speakers find their
anxieties decrease after each speech is delivered.

Conclusion
 Preparation + Practice = Perfection
 Remember, he who fails to prepare is preparing for
failure!

85
Challenges of Public Speaking:
 Lack of Confidence. If you don't have confidence in
yourself, you'll risk alienating the audience.
 Lack of Attention to Audience. Make sure you know the
audience, or the presentation will be unsuccessful.
 Lack of Organization.
 Lack of Preparedness.
 Lack of Time Management.
 Others include distance, background noise, poor or
malfunctioning equipment, bad hearing, poor eyesight,
speech impediments.

86
Speech:
 Speech is communication through talking or a talk given to
an audience. An example of speech is a conversation
between two people. An example of speech is the
presidential address
 The expression of or the ability to express thoughts and
feelings by articulate sounds.
 Speech is human vocal communication using language.
 Speech writing is the method of conveying a thought or
message to a reader using the correct punctuation and
expression.

87
Main areas in organizing a speech:
1. Organizing your main points
a. Each point must be dependent on each other and
balance time from one point to the other.
b. You should have supportive materials e.g. quotes,
statistic's, testimonies etc.
2. Language: The language must be suitable to
a. The organizational
b. Occasion
c. Audience.
d. To speaker
3. Speech delivery.
a. The speech must be spontaneous, the speaker should
not hesitate within the delivery of speech
b. The speech should not look much rehearsed. 88
4. Vocalization
a. Volume – loudness or softness, adjust to the situation (electronically if
necessary, don’t yell)
b. Pitch – highness or lowness of the voice use inflections in your voice to avoid
“monotone”
c. Rate speed at which you speak 120-150 wpm is normal, too slow leaves
people hanging on your words, too fast and they get confused and miss information
d. Pauses – momentary breaks in your speaking takes experience to know when
to pause, pause at the end of thought units avoid vocalized pauses (“uh”, “er”,
“um”...)
e. Variety; vary the loudness, pitch and rate to make the speech sound more
natural and interesting
f. Pronunciation – use correct pronunciation of common words genuine, arctic,
theater, err, nuclear, February, library
g. Articulation – physical production of speech sounds we habitually chop, slur
and mumble, rather than enunciating “ought to”, “didn’t”, “for”, “don’t know”,
“ask”
h. Dialect – variety of language distinguished by variations of accent, grammar
or vocabulary

89
5. Non-verbal communication
a. Use some gestures which are allowed and consider eye contact
with your audience.
b. Always dress official when delivering speech.
6. Visual aid; Use of maps, photography, graphs to give strength to
speech.

Types of Speech Delivery

1. Impromptu speaking - Is a presentation of a short massage
without advance preparation.
2. Extemporaneous speaking - presentation of a carefully planned
and rehearsed speech.
3. Manuscript speaking is word for word interaction of written
message; the speaker maintains his or her attention on the
printed page except when using visual aids.
4. Memorized speaking - consists of reciting of written message that
speaker has commitment to memory. e.g. actors. 90
Factors Consider When Delivering a Speech
 Use the power of eye contact -eye contact make personal engage in
speech
 Posture matters a lot (stand straight) facing your audience
 Project your voice; attempt to project your voice and sustain this
projection through the presentation
 Be confident; confidence is the core elements of effective speech
delivery
 Speak passionately; invest your speech with passion best excited
about your topic.
 Non-verbal communication: Is the transmission of messages or signal
through a non verbal platform such as eye contact, facial expression,
gestures and postures.
 Visuals aids : They are item of a visual manner such as graph,
photograph, video clips etc used in addition to spoken information
(chosen depending on their purpose)
 Vocalization using the voice appropriately when delivering a speech
91
 REPORT WRITING:
Definition of terms
 Report - a short, sharp, concise document written for a
particular purpose and audience
 A report is a spoken or written account of something that
has been observed, done, heard or investigated.
 An account given of a particular matter, especially in the
form of an official document.
 Report writing - a systematic and well organized
presentation of facts and findings of an event that has
already taken place
 Record - a thing constituting a piece of evidence about
the past especially an account kept in writing or some
other permanent form.
92
Characteristics / features / qualities of a good report:
1. Content: Clear picture of what happened, includes
relevant facts as well as pertinent negatives.
2. Accurate: contains specific details relevant to the
incident. Specific details related to call
3. Objective: details are based upon findings, i.e. specific
facts that in general are not disputed.
4. Factual: based on facts, no assumptions or conclusions.
5. Complete: all the relevant and necessary details included
6. Timely: Same day completion
7. Precise
8. Consistency
9. Simple
10. Relevancy
93
A Complete Report should be:
 Timely
 Concise
 Makes every word count
 Concrete fact with descriptive detail
 Clarity
 Uses accepted abbreviations
 Short sentences or phrases

94
COMPONENTS / PARTS / ELEMENTS OF A REPORT
1. Title page - This gives the title of the report, name of the
person the report is being submitted to and completion date.
2. Table of contents - this shows the sections of the report; it
gives the headings, sub-headings and page headings.
3. Executive Summary - a brief overview of the report that is
designed to give the reader a quick preview of the report’s
content.
4. Introduction - a brief description of the content and
background of a report. It describes the change, problems or
issues to be discussed on.
5. Discussion - This is the main body of a report and has two
main key purposes:
i) Explain the conclusions
ii) Justify recommendations
95
6. Conclusion - Brief statement of the key findings of
the report. It is arranged so that the major conclusions come
first.
7. Recommendation - Opinions of the writer of the
report about possible changes or solutions to the problem.
8. References - a list of the sources that are used in and
referred to in the report.
9. Appendices - Additional relevant information may
include interview questions or surveys.

96
The components / parts of report writing can be
summarized into three sections:
Heading / introduction; Discussion and conclusion /
recommendations.

Heading / Introduction
 The heading section includes:
o The date the report is written
o The recipient (s) of the report
o The subject of the report, including the topic and the focus

of the report
 The introduction is general overview of the report including:
o The purpose of the report,
o The people involved,
o And the time period the report represents.
97
Discussion
 This section of the report is the largest.
 In the discussion section, you sum up the
activities and problems you run into at work.
 When developing this section consider:
o Whom is involved—be specific
o When did the incident take place—provide

details
o Why are you composing this report?
o Where did the incident take place?
o What exactly was the process?
98
Conclusion/Recommendations
 This part of the report is the place to
summarize what has been learned
from work or incident or to share any
decisions that have been made.
 The recommendation allows you to
share your opinion concerning any
future action regarding the issue.

99
COMMON TYPES OF REPORTS:
i) Formal or Informal reports
a. Formal reports are carefully structured. They contain much
detail and written in a style that tend to eliminate elements such
as personal pronouns.
b. Informal reports are short messages with natural casual use
of language, example MEMO.
ii) Short or Long Reports - a one page report is a short report
e.g. MEMO. A report that has twenty pages is a long report.
iii) Informational or Analytical reports
a. Informational reports carry objective information from one
area of an organization to other e.g. annual reports, monthly
financial reports.
b. Analytical reports present attempts to solve problems e.g.
scientific research, feasibility reports and real estate appraisals.
100
iv) Proposal reports - a problem solving report. It
describes hoe one organization can meet the needs of
another e.g. governmental agencies advertise their needs by
issuing “requests for proposal.”
v) Vertical or lateral reports -
a. Vertical reports move up or down a hierarchy.
b. Lateral reports assist in the coordination in the
organization (moves between units of the same organization
level e.g. production and finance department.)
vi) Internal or external Reports -
a. Internal reports travel within the organization.
b. External reports are prepared for distribution outside
the organization .e.g. annual reports of companies.

101
vii) Periodic reports - They are issued on regularly
scheduled dates. They are generally upward directed.
viii) Functional reports- they include accounting reports,
marketing, financial reports and a variety of other reports.
ix) Verbal or written reports -
a. Verbal reports are given by word of mouth while
written reports are put down on paper.
b. Verbal and written reports can either be formal or
informal.

102
IMPORTANCE / SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORTS:
 Reports are decision making tools. They can be used in making
business decisions and reach solutions by managers
 Evaluation- Reports are a collection of evaluated information. It is
impossible for managers to keep an eye on the different activities
in each department, so every department writing and maintaining
periodic reports keeping a tab of ongoing activities becomes easier
on the management.
 Professional improvement- during appraisals, staffs are asked to
write reports to explain their positions level of work and
performance. Promotions occur this way.
 Quick source of problem solving- business reports issued to
managers are used as a source of information to make quick
decisions.
 Reports justify a budget.
 Reports form a basis for evaluating individual/departmental
performance.
 Reports are relevant in legal proceedings. 103
Importance of Written Reports:
1. Compilation of statistical data/research
2. Legal documentation (Emergency Medical
Services/Fire)
3. Record Keeping Regulations
4. Justify budget requests, code
enforcement, resource allocation
5. Prepare court cases with relevant facts
6. Evaluate individual/department
performance
104
COMMON DOCUMENTATION PROBLEMS:
 Deficiencies- Missing information in the report
 Discrepancy- Information not matching e.g.
records and reports not matching
 Omission- completely failing to report.
 Unapproved abbreviations- use of abbreviations
that have not been approved in a professional
field
 Errors of Omission- failure to document
 Errors of Commission- giving incorrect or
erroneous information

105
Style of report writing:
 The style of each report varies, but consider “conciseness,
simplicity, and highlighting techniques”
 Remember to be concise.
 You may choose to use graphics to illustrate a point.
 Be aware that using too much data will overwhelm your
reader.
Checklist for Writing a Report
1. Analyze the report problem and purpose
2. Collect Data
3. Document data sources
4. Interpret and organize data
5. Prepare visual aids
6. Compose first draft
7. Revise and proofread 106
 NETWORKING:
 Networking: Communication and cooperation between groups
and individuals sharing a commitment to a common goal, ideal
or objective.
 Sharing resources and/or ideas
 Providing mutual support and assistance
 Networking usually involves meeting new people, who share a
profession, industry, or interests. Networking involves
exchanging ideas and information between these individuals.
 Networking is the exchange of information and ideas among
people with a common profession or special interest, usually in
an informal social setting. Networking often begins with a single
point of common ground.
 Networking: “using the personal relationships people have with
one another to increase your exposure to information and
opportunity” 107
 Networks: are a one-to-one connection used for
communication and other purposes.
 Network is to interact socially for the purpose of getting
connections or personal advancement.
 Collaboration: The process of two or more people or
organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a
goal.
 It is also defined as two or more people working together to
achieve shared goals.
 Collaboration is when a group of people come together and
contribute their expertise for the benefit of a shared
objective, project, or mission.
 Collaboration is a working practice that allows individuals to
work together to achieve a common goal
 A process where people with diverse interests share knowledge
and resources to improve outcomes and/or enhance decisions.108
Importance of Networking:
 Networking contributes to social well-being
 Networking leads to the exchange of ideas
 Networking increases confidence
 Gives methods to exchange practice knowledge while
performing important works.
 Enables people to complete their tasks on time.
 Networking requires a small amount of time and yields
great rewards
 Networking helps you meet people at all professional
levels.
 organization can enhance the performance levels of
employees effectively
 Organization they can handle complex issues in a project
to overcome unwanted issues. 109
Principles of Effective Networking:
 Win/Win Situations Produce Strong Connections
 Give More Than You Get
 Prioritize quality over quantity
 People Do Business With People They Like
 Activity Beats Inactivity (Be proactive)
 Be genuine
 Take a long-term approach
 Don’t focus only on industry leaders
 Be approachable

110
Barriers / Challenges of networking:
 A lack of confidence
 Failure to ask questions or for help
 Fear of not being able to return favors
 Over-sharing.
 Communication styles and how these relate when
collaborating and networking
 Lack of time – not finding the time to network
 Not understanding the benefits of developing and
maintaining networks
 Inability to find groups that you ‘fit’ with

111
Networks: different forms:
 National / International
 Informal / More Structured
 Virtual / Face-to-face
 Short-term / Long-term
 Small Selective / Open

What makes networks effective?

 Mutual trust and solidarity
 Active participation
 Decentralized activities
 Clearly shared goals
 Coordination
 Flexibility for rapid response
 Expertise and experience
 Cooperation and collaboration
 Resources for key activities 112
Threats and pitfalls to networking:
 Lack of money
 Lack of focus
 Inability to agree on strategy and priorities
 Domination by one or few partners
 Tendency to centralize power/resources

How can you use networks?

 Get in touch with others, allies, sympathetic experts
etc.
 Ideas and examples
 Attention for your work
 Potential funding contacts
 Back-up in trouble 113
What can you contribute?:
 Share your successes
 Help others get started
 Share information
 Share expertise
 Give support to others

114
 INTER/INTRA-SECTORAL COLLABORATION:
 Collaboration: The process of two or more people or
organizations working together to complete a task or
achieve a goal.
 Intra- and intersectoral collaboration: WHO definition
(2008) “Recognized leadership between parts of the health
sector with parts of another sector which has been formed
to take action on an issue to achieve health outcomes in a
way that it is more effective, efficient or sustainable than
could be achieved by the health care sector acting alone.”
 Intersectoral collaboration is the collective actions
involving more than one specialized agency, performing
different roles for a common purpose.

115
 Intra-sectoral collaboration is a collective actions of
different sub-processes and activities, which take place
within an organization.
 Intra-sectoral collaboration is a composite process of
implementation and reconciliation of different sub-
processes and activities, which take place simultaneously
or consecutively within an organization between its
various sub- systems and units or agents
 Intra-sectoral collaboration: between sectors within
health (hospitals, community health centers, home care
agencies)
 Inter-sectoral collaboration: between health and non-
health care sectors (social services, transportation,
housing, private sector, employment).
116
Objectives of Collaboration:
 Multiplication of strengths
 Sharing of skills and strengths
 Use limited resources effectively
 Learn lessons from others
 Bringing together different actors

Principles of Effective collaboration:

 Efficiency
 Trust - Manage through trust
 Empathy
 Positivity
 Clarity
 Accountability
 Focus on mission before organization
 Not control
117
Importance of collaboration:
 It’s the foundation of all work processes
 It’s essential to overall work success
 It’s what brings teams together to achieve
common goals
 It’s how teams focus on individual responsibilities
 It helps drive growth and innovation
 Improved flexibility
 Higher engagement
 Productive meetings

118
Types of collaboration within an organization:
1. Team collaboration
2. Contextual collaboration
3. Cross-functional collaboration
4. Community collaboration
5. Social collaboration
6. Cloud collaboration
7. Virtual Collaboration

 Team Collaboration: It involves collaboration within a team where

everyone knows everybody else, their skill sets and their
contribution to work at large.
 Contextual collaboration: happens when you bring all of your
digital tools together on one single digital workplace platform so
your entire team can access all the files and data they need
without having to switch between apps or tools when they need to
collaborate. 119
 Cross-functional collaboration: happens when teams from various
departments or verticals come together to accomplish a common goal
for the entire organization.
 Community collaboration: is all about fostering a sense of community
in shared work within teams. It is centered around learning and
sharing knowledge within teams as opposed to carrying out tasks or
completing work in team collaboration.
 Social collaboration: its when team members can reach any other
team member or a group of team members on a real-time basis on a
platform designed to accommodate such features.
 Cloud collaboration: teams can upload, access, work on and deliver
their work entirely on a cloud based digital workplace platform. All
stakeholders can be added to a document as it exists live on the
cloud.
 Virtual Collaboration: With the advent of digital workplace
technology, virtual collaboration has become a buzzword that
resonates around the world. Virtual meetings are no longer the forte
of distributed teams. They have become mainstream. 120
 ADVOCACY
 Advocacy is a key health promotion activity for
overcoming major barriers to public health and
occupational health such as poor living and working
conditions, rather than individual or behavioural
barriers
 Advocacy can be used as part of a community
initiative, nested in with other components
 Health promotion aims at making these conditions
favourable through advocacy for health”. (WHO, 2013)
as envisaged in the Ottawa Charter on Health i.e.
“political, economic, social, cultural, environmental,
behavioural and biological factors can all favour
health or be harmful to good health 121
Definition:
 Advocacy simply means actively supporting a cause, and
trying to get others to support it as well.
 Advocacy is speaking up, drawing attention to an important
issue and directing decision makers towards a solution.
 Public support for or recommendation of a particular cause
or policy
 The act of pleading for, supporting, or recommending;
active espousal
 Active promotion of a cause or principle
 “The processes by which the actions of individuals or
groups attempt to bring about social and/or organizational
change on behalf of a particular health goal, program,
interest, or population” (2000 joint committee on health
education and promotion terminology, 2002) 122
Advocacy Steps:
1. Taking action - overcome obstacles to action
2. Selecting your issue - identifying and drawing attention to an
issue
3. Understand your political context - identify the key people you
need to influence
4. Build your evidence base - the issue, map out the potential
roles of relevant players
5. Engaging others - win support of key individuals and
organisations
6. Elaborating strategic plans - collectively identifying goals and
objectives and best ways to achieve them
7. Communicate messages and implementation plans
8. Seize opportunities - time interventions &actions for maximum
impact
9. Being accountable - monitor and evaluate process and impact
10. Catalyse health development - build sustainable capacity 123
 Advocacy Principles
Principle Description
Consumer The consumer is at the centre of the interaction.
centred
Opportunities Stakeholders promote and support opportunities
for both individual and systemic advocacy
Recognition Stakeholders recognise that advocacy is
legitimate and that it can take many forms.
Relationships All those involved work together with respect
and recognise each other’s roles and contribution
to the process
Response Matters raised are acknowledged and responded
to.
Resolution Aim of all parties is to find a solution which is
acceptable to the consumer.
124
Effective Advocacy:
1. The rightness of the cause
2. The power of the advocates (i.e., more of them
is much better than less)
3. The thoroughness with which the advocates
researched the issues, the opposition, and the
climate of opinion about the issue in the
community
4. Their skill in using the advocacy tools available
(including the media)
5. Selection of effective strategies and tactics

125
Advocacy Tools and Processes
 Framing
 Formative research
 Working with media (media interviews and
advocacy)
 Networking
 Social marketing
 Lobbying
 Internet based advocacy

126
Advocacy Approaches
1. Self-advocacy
2. Citizen advocacy
3. Peer advocacy
4. Parent advocacy
5. Family/group advocacy

127
Advocacy Approaches

128
Health Advocates
1. Individual consumer,
2. Friends/family/carers/volunteers,
3. Independent patient advocates,
4. Non-profit organisations,
5. Non-government policy/advocacy
organisations,
6. Statutory authorities,
7. Health professionals, patient liaison
officers,
8. Public servants 129
ADVOCACY BENEFITS
1. Positive changes - Legislation, policies, practices,
service delivery and developments and community
behaviour and attitudes
2. Promotion of wellness and resilience in individuals,
families and communities in conjunction with
health literacy and patient activation strategies
3. Raised awareness of the significant impact on an
individual’s health and wellbeing of broader social
and environmental factors (such as housing,
education, employment, and cultural identity,
gender and sexuality identities), thereby enabling
health advocacy to facilitate individual and
130
4. Empowering health consumers to become
more involved in their healthcare decision-
making and broader health policy and
initiatives
5. Resolution of consumers’ issues as they
arise, mitigating escalation and lengthy
complaints processes
6. Consumer focused, affordable and
responsive health services that are cost-
effective
131
132
Effective advocacy:
 Understand the problem
 Define your objectives
 Focus your ideas

Issues for Advocacy:

 Enhancing Gender Equity, Equality and Empowerment of
Women
 Promoting Reproductive Health and Rights
 Population and Development Linkages
 Mobilizing and Monitoring Resources

133
Gender Issues:
 Violence against women
 Early marriage of girls
 Gender disparities in education
 Male responsibility
 Gender disaggregated data
 Unequal social and political participation
 Female economic empowerment
Reproductive Health (RH) Issues:
 The reproductive health approach
 Reproductive rights
 Maternal and newborn care
 STDs and HIV/AIDS
 Adolescent reproductive health
 RH in conflict situations 134
Population and Development Services (PDS) issues:
 Reorienting national population policies
 Strengthening national data systems
 Integrating population factors into development planning
process
 Addressing needs of special population
 Achieving basic social services for all

Major areas of advocacy work

 Leadership development
 Coalition building
 Networking
 Political Lobbying
 Promoting legislative change
 Briefing media
 Counteracting opposition 135
Stakeholders of Advocacy:
 Beneficiaries
 Decision makers
 Allies and partners
 Resistant groups (Adversaries)
Techniques and Tactics of Advocacy
 Sensitizing
 Mobilizing
 Dialoguing
 Negotiating
 Lobbying
 Petitioning
 Pressuring
 Informing
136
Advocacy Skills:
 Listening
 Communication
 Resourcefulness
 Assertiveness
 Self-care, such as taking holidays as needed
Identify influence
 Who makes decisions?
 How are decisions made?
 What is the time-frame?
 What are key moments?

Preparation is critical in understanding the rules of the game

to enables you to become a player.
137
Get to know decision makers:
 Who are they?
 Are they accessible?
 Do they know you and your purpose?
 Do they hear from you regularly?
 What can you do for them?
o Information
o Access to your group
o Press coverage for positive action

Building a strong case

 Anticipate counter arguments
 Select useful facts and examples
 Formulate goals carefully
 Deal positively with criticism
138
Identify allies and helpful experts:
 Look at different levels of influence
 Look at those who partially share your views
 Look at different roles
o The expert witness
o The popular hero
o The powerful voice

Identify and understand your opponents

 Who are they?
 What are their reasons?
 What are their interests?
 What strategy are they likely to adopt?
 Can you dialogue with them?
 Do you have good counter-arguments?
139
Develop a campaign timeframe:
 Don’t wait till the last minute
 Make the most of a launch moment
 How to keep momentum
 Windows of opportunity
 Do you need to end?

Evaluation of advocacy
 Look carefully at your campaign
 What are the lessons?
 What have you gained?
 Have their been negative spin-offs?
 Do you need to modify your strategy? 140
Summary advocacy and networking
 Develop clear objectives and an advocacy plan
 Be imaginative in identifying partners and allies
 Be creative in using windows of opportunity
 Find out about international and national networks in
which you can participate
 Maybe you need to create your own network

141
Summary framework

Components Strategies
•Research
•Stakeholder •Networking

analysis
Advocacy
•Collaboration
•Plan
•Activities •Lobbying

•Evaluation

142
 NEGOTIATION:
 Negotiation is a process which takes place when two or
more interdependent parties who have different needs and
goals, work together to find a mutually acceptable &
beneficial outcome.
 This often involves both parties making concessions.
 Negotiation is about getting the best possible deal in the
best possible way.
 Negotiation is the process of communication back and forth
for the purpose of searching a joint agreement about
differing means or idea.
 Negotiation is a process which takes place when two or
more interdependent parties who have different needs and
goals, work together to find a mutually acceptable &
beneficial outcome. 143
How to influence others:
The three ‘Ps’:
 Position (power?)
 Perspective (empathy)
 Problems (solutions)

Alternative to Negotiation:
 PERSUASION (convincing the other party)
 GIVING IN COERCION (threatening)
 PROBLEM SOLVING INSTRUCTION (employer / employee
relationship)
 ARBITRATION (seeking fairest 3rd party ruling)

144
Qualities of a good negotiator
 Empathy – participating in other people's feelings
 Integrity - sticking to agreements without needing to be
reminded and giving honest answers to questions.
 Confidence - negotiator should be courageous during
negotiation.
 Patience - should be sufficiently steadfast and patient to
bring it to fruition.
 Flexibility - should be flexible in case of new situations or
obstacles.
Others: A successful negotiator needs to be:
 Professional
 Confident, Relaxed, at ease
 Open, honest, sincere & credible
 Respectful of other peoples vales
 Show empathy, and understanding
 Committed to a WIN: WIN result
 Continually enhancing their skills 145
Reasons for a failed negotiation
1. Lack of preparation. Basically this means that both
parties come to the negotiation table with nothing but
excitement and hope that a deal can be made even when
evidence suggest that there is no real possibility of reaching
a deal even in the best of circumstances.
2. Confrontation skills. This is a situation where two parties
or sides compete to win a contest or an element of conflict
where parties directly engage one another in the course of
dispute between them.
3. Lack of trust and respect. Parties who trust each other
less tend to argue for and justify their own preferences and
listen less to the others hence are less likely to understand
the representative and more likely to force their views on
other parties. 146
4. Failure to build a relationship. A relationship in negotiation is
perceived connection that can be psychological, political or personal,
whatever its basis, relationship are important not only because they
provide warmth but also build a trust which is fatal in negotiation.
5. Misunderstanding. It can lead to a breakdown in conversation in
which one participant cannot interpret some utterance or get wrong
interpretation.
6. Solo negotiation. Is a sabotaging tactic that keeps us from changing
our habits in order to resist changes and they argue that change in
uncomfortable.
Others: Why do negotiations fail?
 Getting too emotional
 Focus on personalities, not issues
 Not trying to understand the other person (too focused on our own
needs)
 Wanting to win at all costs
 Regarding negotiation as confrontational
147
4 Stages / phases of negotiation.

148
Stage 1 : Preparation:
 You are fully briefed on the subject matter of the
negotiation
 You are clear about your objectives and what you are
trying to achieve:
o The LIM Model:
o Like to Achieve (most favoured option, ideal settlement)
o Intend to Achieve (expected result, realistic settlement)
o Must Achieve (fall back position, bottom line)
 You have worked out your tactics and how best to put your
case.
 You have tried to figure out what the other parties
objectives will be
 You have gathered background information (personalities
involved, power balance, attitudes etc.) 149
Preparation is instrumental to the success of the
negotiation process. Being well-prepared generates
confidence and gives an edge to the negotiator.
Preparation involves the following activities:
i. Gathering Information: One needs to learn as much
as one can about the problem and ascertain what
information is needed from the other side. Understanding
clearly the issues involved are also needed.
ii. Leverage Evaluation: Evaluation of one’s leverage
and the other party’s leverage at the outset is important
because there may be a number of things one can do to
improve one’s leverage or diminish the leverage of the
other side.
150
iii. Understand the people involved: It is important to
know the people with whom the negotiation is to take
place. An understanding of their objectives, roles and the
issues likely to be raised by them will facilitate better
handling of the situation during the negotiation process.
iv. Rapport: It is helpful to establish a rapport with the
opponent during the early stages, that is, before the
bargaining process begins is helpful. This was, one can
determine early on how cooperative the opponent is going
to be.
v. Know your objectives: Clarity of objectives is
absolutely essential. It needs to be decided in advance how
much you are willing to concede to the opponent and what
your priorities are. All arguments and justifications should
be ready. 151
vi. Type of negotiation: Anticipate the type of negotiation
expected, that is, ascertain whether it will be highly
competitive, cooperative or something unusual; whether the
negotiation will be face to face, by fax, through a mediator, or
in some other manner.
vii. Plan: Decide on the negotiation approach and plan
accordingly.

Stage 2 : Exchanging Information: / opening phase

 This is the single most important stage of negotiation. Both
parties will be trying to find out and understand the other’s
position and requirements.
 Successful negotiators ask twice the number of questions
and spend over twice the amount of time acquiring and
clarifying information than do average negotiators. 152
Here the two sides come face to face.
 Each party tries to make an impression on the other
side and influence their thinking at the first
opportunity.
 Psychologically, this phase is important because it sets
the tone for the negotiation to a large extent.
 It involves both negotiating parties presenting their
cases to each other.
Stage 3 : Bargaining phase
 As soon as a number or term is mentioned by one
party, you have begun to move out of information
exchange and into bargaining
 Exchange of terms
 Never give a concession. Trade it reluctantly 153
 Reject constructively: Do not cause offence. “I’m
afraid we can’t possibly agree to a reduction in the
service charge, but there might be room for
manoeuvre on the wording of clause16”. Retain a
constructive atmosphere.
 Note the moving base line: As each issue is agreed,
acknowledge the fact, summarize it, and move on to
the next point after you have noted the issue of
agreement.
 Be firm on broad issues: be flexible on specifics.
 Look for the agreement signals: Certain formulae of
words indicate that agreement is very close.
“If….then….”“Let’s put that in round numbers.
”“Well, that’s hardly worth holding us up..” 154
 The bargaining phase involves coming
closer to the objective you intended to
achieve when you started the negotiation.
 In this phase, the basic strategy is to
convince the other side of the
appropriateness of your demands and then
persuading the other party to concede to
those demands.
 In the bargaining phase, one needs to be
logical in one’s approach and frame clearly-
thought-out and planned arguments. 155
Stage 4 : Closing and Commitment / closure phase
Your judgement: Is this best and final offer? If yes:
 List the agreement in detail
 List the points of explanation, clarification and
interpretation
 Record agreed summary with all at the table
 Re-start negotiations if any dispute over
agreement

156
The closing phase of a negotiation represents the
opportunity to capitalize on all of the work done in
the earlier phases.
 The research that has been done in the
preparation phase, combined with all of the
information that has been gained is useful in the
closing phase.
 It also involves the sealing of the agreement in
which both parties formalize the agreement in a
written contract or letter of intent.
 Reviewing the negotiation is as important as the
negotiation process itself.
157
Types / Categories of Negotiators:
 Most people can be categorised as “hard” or
“soft” negotiators.
Soft:
 Tends to see negotiators as friends
 Sees agreement as the goals prepared to make
concessions to cultivate the relationship
 Is willing to trust the other side
 Is willing to modify position at an early stage
 Discloses “bottom line” early in discussions
 Avoids contests of will on particular points
 Concedes to pressure
158
Hard:
 Sees negotiators as opponents or adversaries
 Sees victory as the goal
 Demands concessions to establish a
relationship
 Tends to mistrust the other side
 Is reluctant to alter position in any way
 Misleads as to “bottom line”
 Expects to win contests of wills
 Applies pressure

159
 NB: How about you?

 We all have certain tendencies influenced

by our socialisation, our personalities, and
above all by our managerial histories….
 Rate yourself as ‘hard’; or ‘soft’, and give
some evidence for this.
 Does your preference work for you?

160
The Successful Combination of negotiators:
a) Separate personality and issues: don’t see the issues as
necessarily reflecting in any way on your personality –
hard or soft. An important point should be made with
conviction, and without fear as to the negotiator’s image
b) See the other side’s case unemotionally: try to be
objective about your case, and the case of your
opponent. This is the best way to serve your client.
c) Avoid confrontation: confrontation is the weak point of
hard and soft negotiators alike. The hard negotiator will
find that (s)he is required to lose face to accept a
compromise, or allow negotiations to fail when it is not in
client’s best interests that they should do so. The soft
negotiator is more likely to succumb to pressure from a
more aggressive counterpart. Be calm! 161
Final Advice:
Be unconditionally constructive. Approach a
negotiation with this—‘I accept you as an equal
negotiating partner; I respect your right to differ; I
will be receptive.’

Some criticize my approach as being too soft. But

negotiating by these principles is a sign of
strength.”

R. Fisher, Getting to Yes

162
Skills and techniques used in negotiations
1. Prepare. Enter a negotiation without proper preparation and
you’ve already lost. Start with yourself. Make sure you are clear on
what you really want out of the arrangement. Research the other
side to better understand their needs, as well as their strengths and
weaknesses. Enlist help from experts, such as an accountant,
attorney or tech guru.
2. Pay attention to timing. Timing is important in any
negotiation. Sure, you must know what to ask for, but also be
sensitive to when you ask for it. There are times to press ahead, and
times to wait. When you are looking your best is the time to press
for what you want. But beware of pushing too hard and poisoning
any long-term relationship.
3. Leave behind your ego. The best negotiators either don’t
care or don’t show they care about who gets credit for a successful
deal. Their talent is in making the other side feel like the final
agreement was all their idea. 163
4. Ramp up your listening skills. The best negotiators are often
quiet listeners who patiently let others have the floor while they make
their case. They never interrupt. Encourage the other side to talk first.
That helps set up one maxims: whoever mentions numbers first, loses.
While that’s not always true, it’s generally better to sit tight and let the
other side go first. Even if they don’t mention numbers, it gives you a
chance to ask what they are thinking.
5. If you don't ask you don't get. Another tenet of negotiating is,
“Go high, or go home.” As part of your preparation, define your highest
justifiable price. As long as you can argue convincingly, don’t be afraid
to aim high. But no ultimatums, please. Take-it-or-leave-it offers are
usually out of place.
6. Anticipate compromise. You should expect to make concessions
and plan what they might be. Of course, the other side is thinking the
same, so never take their first offer. Even if it’s better than you’d
hoped for, practice your best look of disappointment and politely
decline. You never know what else you can get.
164
7. Offer and expect commitment. The glue that keeps deals from
unraveling is an unshakable commitment to deliver. You should offer this
comfort level to others. Likewise, avoid deals where the other side does
not demonstrate commitment..
8. Do not absorb their problem. Most negotiations, you will hear all of
the other side’s problems and reasons they can’t give you what you want.
They want their problems to become yours, but don’t let them. Instead,
deal with each as they come up and try to solve them. If their “budget” is
too low, for example, maybe there are other places that money could come
from.
9. Stick to your problem. As an individual and a business owner, you
likely have a set of guiding principles and values that you just won’t
compromise. If you find negotiations crossing those boundaries, it might be
a deal you can live without.
10. Close with confirmation. At the close of any meeting (even if no
final deal is struck) recap the points covered and any areas of agreement.
Make sure everyone confirms. Follow-up with appropriate letters or emails.
Do not leave behind loose ends. 165
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING:
 Collective bargaining is a formal and highly developed
form of negotiating.
 It is very similar to diplomacy.
 Collective bargaining is the formal process of negotiation
between an employer and a group of employees, often
with their main representative that sets the terms and
conditions of work.
 The purpose of negotiations is to secure an outcome as
close as possible to your objectives.
 The aim of the people you are negotiating with is to
secure an outcome as close as possible to their objectives
 Doing it successfully requires analytical skills,
forethought, preparation, presentational skills, realism
and detachment. 166
 Forethought means determining and evaluating the
objectives carefully and objectively.
 Key tests include the credibility of the objectives
and the strength of the supporting evidence.
 Preparation means being well briefed and
knowledgeable about what you are seeking to
achieve and how that can be justified.
 Presentation is about how you can present your case
in an accessible and persuasive way to the employer
or government.
 Try to show how your objectives will benefit
employer/government as well as your own
members.

167
 Present your claims in a pleasant, logical, friendly
and firm way.
 Realism means being aware from the start that it
is very unusual to achieve 100 per cent of your
objectives.
A Negotiated Agreement is normally a
compromise between opposing objectives which
both parties are prepared to accept.
 Detachment means not believing all your own
propaganda.

168
Concept of collective bargaining
 Collective bargaining is the process in
which the working people through their
unions, negotiate contracts with their
employees to determine their terms of
employment, including pay, benefits, hours,
leave, job health and safety policies, ways
of balance work and family, and more.

169
Skills and Techniques used in collective bargaining
 Try to imagine yourself as the other side to the
negotiations and consider how they might view or
react to your proposals and arguments.
 There is no one perfect style of negotiating.
 Different people do it equally successfully in
different styles and manners .
 To be successful your individual style has to be the
one you are most comfortable with and which
matches your individual personality
 Successful negotiators range from colourful
charismatic performers to quiet, calm and
methodical people. 170
Skills and techniques used in collective bargaining
1. Problem analysis to identify interests and goals-effective
negotiators must have the skills to analyze a problem to
determine the interests of each party in the negotiations.
2. Preparation before a meeting-before entering a
bargaining meeting, the skilled negotiator prepares for the
meeting like determining goals, areas of trade and
alternatives to the stated goals.
3. Active listening skills - they have skills to listen to the
other party during a debate, it involves the ability to read
body language as well as verbal communication
4. Keep emotions in check - while a negotiation in
contentious issues can be frustrating, allowing emotions to
take control during the meeting can lead to unfavorable
results. 171
5. Clear and effective communication - negotiators must have
ability to communicate clearly and effectively to the other
side. During bargaining meeting, an effective negotiator must
have skills to state his desired outcome as well as his reasoning.
6. Collaboration and teamwork - they must have skills to work
together as a team and foster a collaborative atmosphere
during negotiations.
7. Problem solving skills - individuals with negotiation skills
have the ability to seek a variety of solutions to problems,
which instead of focusing on solving his only goal but also
benefitting both sides.
8. Decision making ability - leaders with negotiations skills
have the ability to act decisively during a negotiation. It may
be necessary during the bargaining agreement to agree to a
compromise quickly to end a stalemate. 172
The Collective Bargaining Process
 Collective bargaining negotiations are a ritual process, a
stately minuet, a symphony or a novel.
 There are different stages / sequence of which is essential
to the whole process.
 The process of collective bargaining comprises steps that
are followed by both the employee and the employer to
reach an amicable solution.
1. Preparation:
2. Discuss:
3. Propose:
4. Bargain:
5. Settlement:
6. Sealing the deal:
173
Process of Collective Bargaining

174
 1. Preparation: At the very first step, both the
representatives of each party prepares the negotiations
to be carried out during the meeting. Each member
should be well versed with the issues to be raised at the
meeting and should have adequate knowledge of the
labor laws. The management should be well prepared
with the proposals of change required in the
employment terms and be ready with the statistical
figures to justify its stand. On the other hand, the union
must gather adequate information regarding the
financial position of the business along with its ability to
pay and prepare a detailed report on the issues and the
desires of the workers.
175
 The opening presentation of the claim should set the scene and
seek to define the parameters for the subsequent stages of the
negotiations.
 It is a strategic exercise setting out the case and the supporting
evidence.
 It should not be too long or too detailed as that can obscure and
weaken the case.
 Dealing with detail comes later.
2. Discuss: Here, both the parties decide the ground rules that will
guide the negotiations and the prime negotiator is from the
management team who will lead the discussion. Also, the issues for
which the meeting is held are identified at this stage. The issues
could be related to the wages, supplementary economic benefits
(pension plans, health insurance, paid holidays, etc.), Institutional
issues (rights and duties, ESOP plan), and Administrative issues
(health and safety, technological changes, job security, working
conditions). 176
3. Propose: At this stage, the chief negotiator begins
the conversation with an opening statement and then
both the parties put forth their initial demands. This
session can be called as a brainstorming, where each
party gives their opinion that leads to arguments and
counter arguments.
4. Bargain: The negotiation begins at this stage,
where each party tries to win over the other. The
negotiation can go for days until a final agreement is
reached. Sometimes, both the parties reach an
amicable solution soon, but at times to settle down
the dispute the third party intervenes into the
negotiation in the form of arbitration or adjudication.
177
Key areas of bargaining step:
Initial Response:
 The next stage is the employer/government response –
again it should be strategic and address the union’s
arguments.
 It may make counter proposals, make an offer for an
agreement, and/or give a broad indication of what they
might offer.
 You need to listen carefully and closely to that response.
 Take a written note of the key parts of the response.
 Evaluate and analyse the language, the precise words
used and their body language
 Assess the extent to which any of their counter
arguments do or do not weaken your case. 178
Countering to Response:
 Do not feel obliged to respond immediately other
than in a preliminary way, or to seek clarification-
but not necessarily too much at that stage.
 Have a break/adjournment of the plenary joint
negotiations to consider their response in more
detail and depth with your colleagues.
 The employer/government first response is
unlikely to be their final response.
 Usually they will be prepared to offer more
particularly if they believe an agreement between
the two sides is possible.
179
 Consider how you can respond and show how your
arguments and supporting evidence have not been
properly addressed or, hopefully, seriously weakened.
 Look for weaknesses and inconsistencies in their
response which you can objectively demonstrate and
exploit.
 Look for any clues or indications of how or where they
might move closer to your objectives.
 On return to plenary negotiating meeting answer their
response – normally in a logical, firm and not insulting
way.
 Try to show a willingness to consider more favourably an
improved offer – if possible with some indications of
what might be acceptable in general terms. 180
 Do not make explicit threats unless you are confident they
can be delivered and that they would be effective.
 Consider using more general expressions of potential
adverse consequences of the initial offer if not improved
upon.
 Present the response in the resumed plenary in a calculated
and persuasive way emphasising the strong parts of your
case.
 Try to avoid immediate subsequent exchanges becoming too
confrontational. Encourage them to have an adjournment
to consider your response carefully and in depth.
 At such an adjournment review your position, identify
possible employers responses and how you might respond
but avoid getting into an interminable hypothetical maze of
speculation. 181
Final Stages:
 Third plenary session likely to be key session.
 Final or near final response from employer/government
very likely if negotiating seriously and constructively.
 Do not summarily reject it unless it really is a
deliberately poor and provocative offer.
 Withdraw to consider it with your side. If it is a
deliberately poor and provocative offer respond quickly
by asking them to go away and reconsider their position
and come back to a future meeting with an improved
offer.
 If it is a sensible offer consider what modest further
improvements might be possible and decide which are
the priority issues. 182
 Consider without prejudice/informal/behind the chair
meetings between a small number of key representatives
from both sides - generally the smaller the better but start
with a minimum of two
 Consider possible improvements through staging a settlement-
some now- more later - end loading a pay award – continued
negotiations on unresolved issues while reaching agreement
on those that can be agreed by both sides.
 Employer/government may be prepared informally to improve
the offer through a without prejudice offer if your side can
confirm that they would accept such an offer if made
formally. These offers are in effect confidential -they have
not been made unless they are accepted. Respect that
negotiating protocol or forget about that facility for future
negotiations.
183
5. Settlement: This is the final stage of the collective
bargaining process, where both the parties agree on a
common solution to the problem discussed so far. Hence,
a mutual agreement is formed between the employee
and the employer which is to be signed by each party to
give the decision a universal acceptance.
6. Sealing the deal: both parties sign a written
agreement to prevent future arguments about what has
been agreed. Conclude on good terms. Remember
collective bargaining and employer/employee
negotiations are a long term business – circumstances
will vary and at different times in the future will favour
one side or the other.
184
 If there is an agreement acceptable to both sides go
through it in detail jointly before resuming plenary session
in order to be sure that both sides have the same
understanding
 Resume in plenary. If an informal agreement has been
reached the employer/government representatives make
the offer formally and the trade union side accept it
 Try to have a written agreement at this stage to prevent
future arguments about what has been agreed
 Conclude on good terms. Remember collective bargaining
and employer/employee negotiations are a long term
business – circumstances will vary and at different times in
the future will favour one side or the other

185
 PARTNERSHIP:
 Partnership - a relationship where people work together to
achieve goals that are meaningful to all parties.
 Refers to a close relationship between people who have
joint rights and responsibilities.
 “arrangements that are voluntary, mutually beneficial,
and entered into for the purpose of mutually agreed upon
objectives.”
 Partnerships often result from collaborative efforts.
 Refers to a relationship between families and professionals
in which families and professionals mutually agree to
defer to each other’s judgments and expertise for the
purpose of securing benefits for the students, other family
members, and professionals.
186
 Partnerships may be formal or informal. We may partner
with others toward a common goal without any formal
agreement. In some cases partnerships will require some
type of agreement such as a volunteer agreement, a
collection agreement, or a memorandum of
understanding.
 Incases of business: partnership is a formal arrangement
by 2 or more parties to manage and operate a business
share its profits.
 All partners share liability and profit equally. While in
others, partners may have limited liability.

187
Principles of Partnerships:
Partnerships are characterized and achieved
through seven principles:
 Communication
 Professional Competence
 Respect
 Commitment
 Equality
 Advocacy
 Trust

188
Seven Principles of Partnership:

189
Principle 1: Communication:
 Family-professional partnerships are enhanced when
professionals use effective communication strategies. The
partners must maintaining an open and positive line of
communication.
 Salient communication strategies include:
o Be friendly
o Listen
o Be clear
o Be honest
o Provide and coordinate information
Principle 2: Professional Competence
 According to families and federal policy, highly qualified
professionals:
o Provide a quality education to all students
o Are committed to life long learning.
o
190
 Principle 3: Respect
 Respect in partnerships means that members regard each other
with esteem and communicate that esteem through their words
and actions
 The respectful professional seeks to:
o Honor cultural diversity and the personal values of the family.
o Affirm family and student strengths.
o Treat each other, students and families with dignity/respect

Principle 4: Commitment
 Commitment occurs when professionals consider their
relationship with a child and family to be more than an
obligation incurred through work.
 Indicators of committed professionals include:
o Being sensitive to emotional needs.
o Being available and accessible.
o Going “above and beyond.”
191
 Principle 5: Equality
 Equality refers to the condition in which families and professionals feel
that each has roughly equal power to influence a student’s education.
 Indicators of equality within the family-professional partnership include:
o Avoiding hierarchies and sharing power.
o Fostering empowerment.
o Providing options.

Principle 6: Advocacy
 Advocacy refers to speaking out and taking action in pursuit of a cause.
 Indicators of professional advocacy within the family-professional
partnership include:
o Preventing problems
o Keeping your conscience primed
o Pinpointing and documenting problems
o Broadening alliances with families and professionals
o Creating win-win solutions for all involved

192
Principle 7: Trust
 Trust is having confidence in someone else’s reliability, judgment,
word, and action to care for and not to harm the entrusted person.
 Trust exists when people believe that the trusted person will act in
the best interests of the person extending the trust and will make
good faith efforts to keep their word.
Trust Practices
Trust means:
 Being reliable:
o Doing what you say you are going to do.
 Using sound judgment:
o Demonstrating professional competency.
 Maintaining confidentiality:
o Following stipulated guidelines.
 Trusting yourself:
o Having confidence in your capacity to effectively serve the needs of
your students.
193
Trust the Keystone of Partnerships
Why Partner?:
 Leverage funds and resources
 Meet objectives and public expectations
 Solve problems
 Engage people in the management of their own
issues
 Shared support

195
Importance of partnership:
 Partnerships help us solve problems
 Helps leverage resources / Increase resources available to
make better products
 Helps in meeting objectives
 Helps to build support.
 Increase your level of knowledge and expertise
 Helps to reach a greater audience and hence It Increases
Customer Base
 It Enhances organization Credibility and Image
 Enhances long term stability

196
Challenges of partnership:
There are the challenges that will be faced by all agencies
and collaborative leadership which affect achieving success.
 Varying engagement makes decision-making more diffuse
and highly complex. The key here is the formalization of
decision making and resource allocation to guide
collaborations through this initial challenge
 Creating and sustaining the collaborative partner's interest
and engagement, which is often difficult without
meaningful financial investments or contractual
obligations
 How to bring about tangible and measurable improvement
in the health of the population being served. It is very
difficult to tell if the curve is being bent from your efforts
or something else. 197
 Identifying and attaining sustainable funding. The reliance
on predominantly external funding has been shown to limit
the ability of collaborative partnerships to take a long-
term view in development and ultimately necessary
support Work to ensure sustainable funding
 Limited staff hours and reliance on volunteers to perform
on many initiatives. This is tied in with funding as lack of
dedicated staff hours and reliance on voluntary effort
however engaged tends to result in higher than desired
turnover.
 Another challenge for collaborative partnerships is
working to build "community recognition, credibility, and
respect“. There is also a level of trust that is very
important and needs to be built, which can be a challenge
as well 198
Qualities of a good and successful partnership:
 Open Communication
 Accessibility
 Flexibility
 Mutual Benefit
 Measurable results.

Open Communication: Open communication is the backbone

of any effective partnership. Each party depends on the
other to keep informed; this can be achieved by offering
regular status reports and/or scheduling a regular touch
base. It is better to overcommunicate and be transparent
than to keep one another in the dark and surprised or
confused if an issue arises.
199
 Accessibility: Access to the right team members is the
difference between a partnership that yields results and one
that is just on paper. Ask your partner to help you
understand which people or departments are involved in
implementing your new partnership.
 Flexibility: It is important to keep your overall goal front
and center, but it is also good to acknowledge the likelihood
of everything going as planned is unlikely. Being prepared
and flexible is the key to overcoming curveballs in
partnerships.
 Mutual Benefit: In a mutually beneficial partnership, each
partner takes an active interest in the other, while working
together to develop shared success. A balanced commitment
and investment from each party ensure the partnership will
drive impact, innovation, and longevity in overall returns.
200
 Measurable Results: Partnerships can create great
outcomes but require commitment and resources.
Measuring the value of these relationships helps assess the
success of the partnership and should be included in every
agreement.

201
 CONDUCTING MEETINGS
Introduction:
 The process used in a meeting depends on the kind of
meeting you plan to have, e.g., staff meeting, planning
meeting, problem solving meeting, etc.
 However, there are certain basics that are common to
various types of meetings
Why Have Meetings?
 Important issues are addressed
 High quality decisions are made
 Work gets done that could not be done by individuals
working alone

202
Topics for discussion in conducting meetings
(describing and understanding the basic concepts
in conducting effective meetings) are as follows:
1. Selecting Participants
2. Developing Agendas
3. Opening the Meeting
4. Establishing Ground Rules
5. Time Management in Meetings
6. Evaluating the Meeting Process
7. Evaluating the Overall Meeting
8. Closing the Meeting

203
Selecting Participants:
 The decision about who is to attend depends on what you want
to accomplish in the meeting. Don't depend on your own
judgment about who should come. Ask several other people for
their opinion as well.
 If possible, call each person to tell them about the meeting,
it's overall purpose and why their attendance is important.
 Follow-up your call with a meeting notice, including the
purpose of the meeting, where it will be held and when, the
list of participants and whom to contact if they have questions.
 Send out a copy of the proposed agenda along with the
meeting notice. · Have someone designated to record
important actions, assignments and due dates during the
meeting.
 This person should ensure that this information is distributed to
all participants shortly after the meeting. 204
Developing Agendas:
 Develop the agenda together with key participants in the meeting.
 Think of what overall outcome you want from the meeting and
what activities need to occur to reach that outcome. The agenda
should be organized so that these activities are conducted during
the meeting.
 In the agenda, state the overall outcome that you want from the
meeting ·
 Design the agenda so that participants get involved early by having
something for them to do right away and so they come on time.
 Next to each major topic, include the type of action needed, the
type of output expected (decision, vote, action assigned to
someone), and time estimates for addressing each topic.
 Ask participants if they'll commit to the agenda.
 Keep the agenda posted at all times.
 Don't overly design meetings; be willing to adapt the meeting
agenda if members are making progress in the planning process.205
Opening Meetings:
 Always start on time; this respects those who showed up
on time and reminds late-comers that the scheduling is
serious.
 Welcome attendees and thank them for their time. ·
 Review the agenda at the beginning of each meeting,
giving participants a chance to understand all proposed
major topics, change them and accept them.
 Note that a meeting recorder if used will take minutes and
provide them back to each participant shortly after the
meeting.
 Model the kind of energy and participant needed by
meeting participants. Clarify your role(s) in the meeting

206
Establishing Ground Rules for Meetings:
 You don't need to develop new ground rules each time you
have a meeting, surely. However, it pays to have a few basic
ground rules that can be used for most of your meetings.
 These ground rules cultivate the basic ingredients needed for a
successful meeting.
 Four powerful ground rules are:
o Participate,
o Get focus
o Maintain momentum
o Reach closure. (You may want a ground rule about

confidentiality.)
 List your primary ground rules on the agenda.
 If you have new attendees who are not used to your meetings,
you might review each ground rule.
 Keep the ground rules posted at all times.
207
Time Management:
 One of the most difficult facilitation tasks is time
management – time seems to run out before tasks
are completed.
 Therefore, the biggest challenge is keeping
momentum to keep the process moving.
 You might ask attendees to help you keep track of
the time.
 If the planned time on the agenda is getting out of
hand, present it to the group and ask for their
input as to a resolution

208
Evaluations of Meeting Process:
 It's amazing how often people will complain about a
meeting being a complete waste of time -- but they only
say so after the meeting.
 Get their feedback during the meeting when you can
improve the meeting process right away.
 Evaluating a meeting only at the end of the meeting is
usually too late to do anything about participants'
feedback.
 Every couple of hours, conduct 5-10 minutes "satisfaction
checks".
 In a round-table approach, quickly have each participant
indicate how they think the meeting is going

209
Evaluating the Overall Meeting:
 Leave 5-10 minutes at the end of the meeting to evaluate
the meeting; don't skip this portion of the meeting.
 Have each member rank the meeting from 1-5, with 5 as
the highest, and have each member explain their ranking.
 Have the chief executive rank the meeting last
Closing Meetings
 Always end meetings on time and attempt to end on a
positive note.
 At the end of a meeting, review actions and assignments,
and set the time for the next meeting and ask each person
if they can make it or not (to get their commitment).
 Clarify that meeting minutes and/or actions will be
reported back to members in at most a week (this helps to
keep momentum going). 210
Steps for an Effective Meeting
BDA Strategy
 Before the Meeting
 During the Meeting
 After the Meeting
Before the Meeting
 Notify everyone as soon as you know about it. “Save the
date”
 Remind everyone in a fun way – use eye-catching graphics,
color, etc.
 Remind your team to bring items/assignments needed for
meeting.
 Create an agenda that is realistic for the amount of time
you have and that reflects team members input.
 Be sure they have an agenda before arriving. 211
Before the Meeting – Continued’
Prioritize the agenda.
 Your first few topics are generally the most important.
 Have additional copies of the agenda or overhead or
chart paper with agenda visible so all will have a copy
even if they forgot to bring theirs.
 Establish group norms, post the norms and follow the
norms.
During the Meeting
 Begin and end on time.
 Clearly state the purpose and objectives of your
meeting.
 Have a warm-up activity. Brain teaser, sharing successes,
etc.
 Feed them, they will come. 212
During the Meeting – Continued’
 Assigning roles
o Sample Roles: Recorder, Reporter, Time Keeper, Facilitator
 Creating and sustaining working committees
o Sample Committee: Attendance, Achievement / Promotion,

Discipline, Communications, Business Partners,

Internships, Assemblies, Field Trips, etc.
After the Meeting
 Be sure everyone receives a copy of the minutes.
 Reminders to team members:
 Date, time, location of next meeting, what is needed (homework)
at the next meeting.
 Personalized notes of thanks.
 Example: Thanks for sharing your idea about ____ at the
meeting. Thanks for bringing the pretzels and juice! Thanks for
volunteering to help plan our assembly this month!
213
Meeting Management:
 Justice and courtesy to all
 One thing at a time
 The rule of the majority and
 The rights of the minority

Elements of Good Meetings

1. Planning and preparation
2. Efficient disposal of business
3. Open participation with adherence to the rules
4. Effective follow-up

 In good meetings, people nod in agreement;

 In poor meetings, people just nod.
214
Planning and Preparation Ensures:
 Access to documents and materials
 Attention to the meeting environment
 Follow through on decisions

Items Needed for the Meeting

 Minutes of previous meeting
 Copies of reports
 Correspondence

Director Responsibility
 Awareness of topics, context, and stakeholder positions
 Review of documents prior to meeting
 Preparation for debate and decision-making
215
Meeting Environment:
 Bright room with adequate lighting
 Comfortable heating level
 Good air circulation
 Good seating arrangement
 Early opening of the room

Role of the Chair

 Ensure orderly debate and opportunities for
participation
 Remain impartial during the debate
 Vacate the chair when presenting personal
viewpoints
 Use a gavel to keep order
 If in doubt, consult the secretary’s notes
216
Role of the Secretary:
 Keep records of procedures
 Produce minutes summarizing discussions
 Maintain copies of bylaws, policies, and previous minutes
 Maintain correspondence
 Oversee use of the Corporation seal
 Notify participants of meetings

217
Agenda:
1. Call to order
2. Review and approval of agenda
3. Reading and adoption of minutes
4. Business arising from minutes
5. Treasurer’s report
6. Correspondence
7. Reports from committees
8. New business
9. Date and time for next meeting
10. Adjournment

218
Minute –Taking
 Minutes are the official record of proceedings
 Minutes maintain the individual’s confidentiality
 Official opposition to the course of action must be
recorded
 Minutes are adopted and signed off at the
following meeting
 Minutes include: the time, date, place, and
names of attendees the exact wording of
motions, naming mover and seconder.

219
Conclusion:
 Review objectives
 Review any additional expectations
 Review Parking Lot
 Point out Certificates of Participation
 Complete evaluation
 Thank you!

220
 INTERPERSONAL ETIQUETTE:
COURTESY GROOMING AND ETIQUETTE
Overall objective of the topic
 To enable officers and students to practice courtesy, embrace
grooming and etiquette as away of influencing one another and
the rest of their staff / students to practice the same in order
to improve the organization’s corporate image and client
satisfaction and maintain high standard discipline and morale.
Specific objectives of the topic
 Practice courtesy to enhance the organization’s corporate
image.
 Appreciate the significance of grooming in promoting officer’s
and student’s confidence
 Apply hints of grooming and etiquette to boost the workers /
student’s self image.
 Describe the ways courtesy, grooming and etiquette can impact
on the organization’s public image. 221
Introduction:
 Today many organizations both private and public, are
spending millions and millions of dollars to train their
employees on public relations and in posting
advertisements to boost their corporate images.
 Staff and student is expected at all times to present a
professional, business like image to visitors, customers,
and the general public.
 Workers do spend one-third of their working lives at their
offices. This means that the office environment plays a
significant role in shaping our attitudes and perceptions.
 The people we work with, do affect our productivity and
our career and vice versa. One way in which they do this is
through their communication presentation.
222
 Practicing office courtesy and etiquette makes the
workplace and workday more favorable.
 One sure truth is that, you can be the best worker
in the office and still fail on your job if you are
careless about your talk and personal
presentation.
 It is therefore important that every worker
appreciates the importance of courtesy, grooming
and etiquette in the workplace.

223
Meaning of the terms:
 Courtesy is a mark of a gentleman. (Gesture of
politeness). It simply salutation or greetings for civilians.
 Grooming refers to outward appearance in terms of
clothing and general body cleanliness and neatness.
(work dress code-very strict among disciplined forces)
 Etiquette refers to the codes or rules governing social or
diplomatic interaction. These codes vary from the more
or less flexible laws of social usage to the rigid
conventions of court and military circles.
 Interpersonal means pertaining to the relations between
persons; is being, relating to, or involving relations
between persons
224
ETIQUETTE:
 Rules governing professional conduct i.e. diplomatic,
parliamentary, County, medical.
 Etiquette therefore are guidelines which control the way a
responsible individual should behave amongst others or in
a society.
 It has to do with good manners, making others feel
comfortable in social situations, following rules of proper
behavior.
 Etiquette is dependent on culture and like culture it varies
from society to society.

225
Examples: Disciplined forces courtesy
 All soldiers are required to salute each other whenever they
meet or pass one another, subordinate saluting first.
 Respect to superiors will not be confined to obedience on
duty, but will be extended to all occasions.
 It is very undisciplined to salute with the coat unbuttoned or
with the hand in the pocket, or cigarette in the mouth.

Benefits of courtesy
 Basis for relationship building and trust.
 Encourages customer participation
 Makes others feel appreciated
 Keeps dialogue going and lively
 Earns officers respect in the eyes of the public
 Enhances discipline and keeps the morale high among
officers. 226
GROOMING
 First impressions count.
 An initial impression is made up of:
o Non-verbal perceptions (55%)
o Vocal quality (38%)
o Words (7%)
 First impressions are made within five (5)
seconds.

227
YOU ARE WHAT YOU WEAR!
People make the following decision about you in the wink of
an eye when they meet you for the first time:
 Your economic level
 Your education level
 Your trustworthiness
 Your social position
 Your level of sophistication
 Your economic heritage
 Your social heritage
 Your educational heritage
 Your moral character
 Your success

228
THE SUCCESS FORMULA:
The following attire gives a person complete control
over the group.
 Black \ Blue suit: Black and blue are the colours of
authority
 White Shirt
 Red color tie up to the waist
 Black socks
 Black shoes
 Sober buckled belt

229
Why observe etiquette and mind about grooming
 Restores public confidence among members of the public
and workers.
 With the right grooming and mannerism you present an
attractive, businesslike appearance and build your self-
confidence.
 Well mannered and dressed officers create a favorable
impression to both their juniors and seniors.
 Attitude formation - What one wears and how he/she
wears is very likely to help or hinder ones general
attitude.
 Good appearance, builds the officers poise. Poise is a
quality or trait that enables one look calm and composed
despite internal turmoil.
230
 It is personal hygiene. It speaks volumes about how you treat
your body and how you treat the working environment around
you. People who are neat in their body tend to be neat in
their desk.
 First impression lasts. It’s always good to be ready and
presentable when you meet someone for the first time.
 The Gossip Mill. Coworkers will always talk about people who
look untidy and miserable. Could do you prefer to be a cause
of gossip?
 It makes you feel good. If you feel good on the outside, you'll
feel good on the inside. If you feel good about yourself, your
attitude towards people and your work will be better.
 An indicator of a good time manager and smart worker.
 Office workers who are well groomed tend to be well liked.
People tends to associate more with smart and presentable
colleagues. 231
Rationale for acceptable Workplace Attire
 To ensure safety while working;
 To present or create a professional or identifiable
appearance for patients, visitors, customers, students or
the public; and
 To promote a positive working environment and limit
distractions caused by provocative or inappropriate dress.
Tips on grooming and etiquette:
Clothes:
 Select your office wear carefully. Do not go in for
“showy” clothes for office wear.
 Tailored suits and dresses are most preferred for business.
 Skirts and blouses are acceptable as long as the blouses
are not too revealing and skirts are tailored.
232
 Have your clothes cleaned and pressed frequently.
 Make sure that the colors in your collection harmonize.
Avoid colors that are too loud or too contrasting.
 Select your office shoes with care.
 Be conservative about jewelry and wear only as much as
will improve your appearance
 Keep your under things clean and in good repair.
 Be sure that your clothing is free from rips and stains

Make-ups
 Apply make-up carefully and do not over use.
 Keep your nails clean, polished and neatly trimmed.
 Ensure your hair is well done and clean at all times.
 Avoid extremes in hair styles.
233
 Bathe daily and use a mild deodorant when necessary
unless your are allergic or otherwise instructed by your
doctor. Remember, there is no substitute for soap and
water. Do not try to conceal uncleanliness by using
perfumes or lotions.
 Brush your teeth daily and have them cleaned as often as
your dentist recommends. Use mouth wash to avoid
unpleasant breath.

How can we develop a standard grooming culture

 By providing basic guidelines and relying on staff members’
judgment and supervisors’ enforcement of the policy.
 Listing specific acceptable and unacceptable clothing and
grooming habits.
 Establishing a committee to create standards and settle
234
TIPS ON ETIQUETTE:
Watch out on your behavior in the office and during social
events. In particular be keen on:-
 Respecting people’s privacy
 Observing punctuality during meetings
 Keeping the office clean and orderly
 Solicitations, avoid borrowing or lending unnecessarily.
 Check on your eating habits
 Control such mannerisms as laughing, rubbing the nose,
scratching, cleaning the throat etc.
 Use a hand kerchief while sneezing, coughing etc.
 Avoid eating in the office, particularly while serving
clients.
 Avoid picking your teeth while in the office.
235
Sensory reminders of how to get along in the workplace:
Sound
 Monitor the volume of conversations
 Keep personal telephone conversations and emails to a
minimum
 Maintain privacy - keep all workplace conversations
professional
 Avoid interruptions
 DON’T GOSSIP!
Scent
 Be sensitive to scents and smells surrounding you, i.e.
perfumes, cologne
 If eating at your desk avoid eating foods strong in smells
and aromas - can become unpleasant
236
Sight
 Keep your personal workspace clean
and neat at all times
 Use shared areas with respect and
courtesy - clean up after yourself:

Telephone Etiquette
 Never leave a caller on hold for more than a minute
 If you need to speak to a co-worker who is on the phone,
leave and try again later
 Don’t listen in on co-workers’ phone conversations
 When using a cellular phone in public, try not to bother
others - keep it short and discrete
 Use your speakerphone sparingly
237
EMAIL ETIQUETTE:
 Check the organization's email policy
 Think about the message content before you send it out.
 Make sure that content is relevant to the recipients.
 Be polite.
 Trim any quoted message down as much as possible.
 Use humor and irony sparingly
COMPLIMENTING
 Never ask people where they got their clothes or what
they cost.
 Don’t talk about what you paid for clothes or brag about
designer labels.
 If someone compliments you, it’s not necessary to return
the compliment.
238
MASTERING MANNERS:
 Eyes are the windows to a person’s soul.
 Eye contact creates a strong connection between two
people and also creates an impression of sincerity and
trustworthiness.
 Listen actively
 Punctuality Is The Politeness Of Kings

CREATE AN IMPACT
 Integrity
 Manners
 Personality
 Appearance
 Consideration
 Tact
239
CONCLUSION:
 The quality of our work may be excellent,
but the way we handle people, appear
and conduct ourselves, adds value to our
existence and service delivery.
 Employers prefer workers who always
create a favorable impression.

SO BE THE ONE

240
MANAGEMENT OF
RESOURCES

241
.

242
LAW GOVERNING HEALTH CARE
PRACTICE

243
DEFINITIONS.
Law.
This is the system of rules that a particular country or
community recognizes as regulating the actions of its
members and it is enforced by the imposition of penalties.
Rules.
These are accepted principles or instructions that states
the way things are or should be done, and tells you what
you are allowed or not allowed to do.
Regulations.
These are official or authoritative instructions. They are
"moral and ethical directives, instruction, directions,
command, order, charge, injunction, prescription, ruling,
decree, formal ordinance, etc ". 244
By- laws.
The rules and regulations enacted by an association or a
corporation to provide a framework for its operation and
management.
By-laws may specify the qualifications, rights, and liabilities of
membership, and the powers, duties, and grounds for the
dissolution of an organization.
Orders.
The arrangement or disposition of people or things in relation to
each other according to a particular sequence, pattern, or
method, or a state in which the laws and rules regulating the
behavior of members of a community are observed and authority
is obeyed.
Declaration.
In law, a declaration refers to a judgment of the court, usually
referred to as a declaratory judgment. 245
Key words in law,
 Bill: - a draft law or legislation.
 Delegated legislation: - law made by parliament indirectly.
 Ultra vires: - Latin term which means “beyond the
powers”.
 Common law: - a branch of the law of England which was
developed from customs, usages and practices of the
English people.
 Stare decisis; - Latin term which means “the decision
stands”.
 Precedent: - An earlier decision of a court e.g S.M. Otieno
case.
 Prima facie evidence - strength of evidence.
 Inter alia - among other things.
246
WHY LEARN LAW?
 To know court procedures when prosecuting.
 To avoid breaking the law.
 To assist somebody in need.
 To be aware of ones rights to avoid exploitation, harassment,
intimidations etc.
 To defend oneself in court of law.
 For general knowledge.
 To teach others.
PURPOSE OF LAW
 To promote desired behavior of the community.
 To protect the individual from outside aggression (robbery, assault,
etc.) and vice versa.
 Present uniformity of action in case of breach of law.
 Prevents errors of judgement.
 Accumulate experience for faster administration of justice.
 To punish people who commit crimes. 247
CHARACTERISTICS OF LAW.
 It represents the wish and desire of the community and
commands and varies through time and space.
 Are abiding in nature and affects all people uniformly.
 Normally backed fully by government and state.
 Provide the procedures of administration of justice.
SOURCES OF LAW
 The Constitution.
 Legislation.
 Delegated Legislation.
 Substance of Common Law and doctrines of equity.
 African Customary Law.
 Islamic Law.
 Hindu Law.
 Judicial Precedent (Case Law).
248
CLASSES OF LAW.
Criminal law.
 Substantive and procedural law.
 Deals with the relationship between people and
the society.
 Deals with court cases that are between the
government and the defendant.
 Government prosecutes the offender.
 The guilty defendant is jailed, fined or sentenced
to death in exceptional cases.
 Covers cases such as assault, homicide and sexual
offences among others.
249
Civil law.
 Deals with the relationship between an individual with the state.
 Concerned with court cases that are between two private parties.
 There is no execution of the defendant.
 Losing defendant (accused) only reimburses the plaintiff (accuser)
for losses.
 Covers cases such as contract disputes, accidents and cases
concerning will.
Why are people reluctant to take cases to court.
• Expensive.
• Time consuming.
• Ignorance.
• Social relationship.
• Injustice in court.
• Victimization fear.

250
THE CONSTITUTION.
 This is a body of the basis of rules and principles by which a society

has resolved to govern itself or regulate its affairs.

 It contains the agreed contents of the political system.
 It sets out the basic structure of Government.
 It is the supreme law.
 The Kenya Constitution is the supreme law of Kenya. It establishes

the structure of the Kenyan government, and also defines the

relationship between the government and the citizens of Kenya.
CONSTITUTION CHAPTERS.
The Kenyan Constitution is comprised of the following 18 Chapters:-
 Chapter One: Sovereignty of the people and supremacy of the

constitution.
 Chapter Two: The republic.
 Chapter Three: Citizenship.
 Chapter Four: The bill of rights.
 Chapter Five: Land and environment.
251
 Chapter Six: Leadership and integrity.
 Chapter Seven: Representation of the people.
 Chapter Eight: The legislature.
 Chapter Nine: The executive.
 Chapter Ten: Judiciary.
 Chapter Eleven: Devolved government.
 Chapter Twelve: Public finance.
 Chapter Thirteen: The public service.
 Chapter Fourteen: National security.
 Chapter Fifteen: Commissions and independent offices.
 Chapter Sixteen: Amendment of the constitution.
 Chapter Seventeen: General provisions.
 Chapter Eighteen: Transitional and consequential provisions.
Kenya’s new constitution was enacted on 27th August 2010
replacing the old one that had been in place since Kenya’s
Independence in 1963. 252
SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION.
The supremacy of the Constitution as source of law is
manifested in various ways:-
1)All other laws derive their validity from the Constitution.
2)It proclaims its supremacy. Section 2 of the Constitution
provides inter alia (among other things) “The Constitution is
the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya and shall take the
force of law throughout Kenya, if any other law is inconsistent
with this Constitution, this Constitution will prevail and the
other law shall to the extent of its inconsistency be void”.
The rights Guaranteed by the Constitution
 Right to life.
 Right to personal liberty.
 Right to property.
 Right to protection of law.
253
THE DIFFERENT ACTS IN HEALTH PRACTICE:
 Public Health Act,
 Food, Drugs and Chemical Act,
 Nurses Act,
 Workman’s Compensation,
 Children and Young Persons,
 Succession Act,
 Mental Health Act,
 Penal Code
 Occupational Health and Safety Acts.

254
 PUBLIC HEALTH ACT (CAP 242)
CHAPTER 242 (PUBLIC HEALTH ACT)
 An Act of Parliament to make provision for securing and
maintaining health
 This Act concerns the protection of public health in
Kenya and lays down rules relative to, among other
things, food hygiene and protection of foodstuffs, the
keeping of animals, protection of public water supplies,
the prevention and destruction of mosquitos and the
abatement of nuisances including nuisances arising from
sewerage.
 The Act establishes the Central Board of Health and a
district health management board in each district.
 It also establishes and defines functions of health
authorities. 255
 Public Health Act (Cap. 242): is a Legislation document.
 It deals with different subjects such as Livestock, Food
& nutrition, Water, Waste & hazardous substances
 It addresses issues such Basic legislation,
Hygiene/sanitary procedures, Potable water, Processing/
handling, Data collection/ reporting, Transport/ storage,
Offences/ penalties, Food quality control/ food safety,
Animal health, Dangerous animal/ harmful animal,
Disinfection/ disinfestation, International trade,
Pollution control, Institution, Enforcement/compliance,
Inspection, Water supply, Sewerage, Irrigation.
 Country/Territory – Kenya
 Date of Commencement: 6th September, 1921. (Revised
2012) 256
 The Public Health Act (PHA), the primary legislation
applicable to matters of public health crises, authorizes
public health authorities, particularly the Minister of
Health, to take various actions during public health
crises, including declaring an infectious disease a
“notifiable infectious disease” or a “formidable
epidemic, endemic or infectious disease,” and taking the
necessary prevention and suppression measures to fight
the disease. Specific powers accorded to health
authorities for the purpose of prevention and suppression
of an infectious disease include search, seizure, and
detention powers; the power to designate any place as a
quarantine area, including ships and aircraft; and the
power to restrict or ban immigration into the country.
257
 Kenyan and international laws impose certain transparency
requirements on the country’s government. Chief among these
are the requirement under the PHA to periodically publish
information regarding infectious diseases in Kenya, neighboring
countries, and around the world, and the obligation under the
International Health Regulations to report any public health
emergency to the World Health Organization (WHO).
 The Public Health Act (PHA) of 1921, including its subsidiary
legislation, is the primary law that governs matters of public
health crises in Kenya.
 The PHA requires that health authorities take all the necessary,
lawful actions imposed on them under any law to prevent or
deal with an outbreak or the prevalence of “any infectious,
communicable or preventable disease, to safeguard and
promote the public health and to exercise the powers and
perform the duties in respect of the public health. 258
 Food, Drugs and Chemical Act (Cap 254)
 An Act of Parliament to make provision for the prevention
of adulteration of food, drugs and chemical substances and
for matters incidental thereto and connected therewith.
 The Act prohibits the labelling, packaging, sale, treatment
and processing of food that is presented to the public in a
false or deceptive manner or that does not meet a
prescribed standard and handling of food in unsanitary
conditions.
 [Date of commencement: 11th May, 1965.] An Act of
Parliament to make provision for the prevention of
adulteration of food, drugs and chemical substances.
 Implemented by Food, Drugs and Chemical Substances
(Food Hygiene) Regulations. on 01 Jan 1978
 Revised Edition 2013 [2012]. 259
 This Act provides rules for the placing on the market of
food, drugs for man and animal and chemical substances,
establishes the Public Health (Standards) Board and makes
otherwise provision for the control of the quality and
safety of food, drugs and chemical substances to be
placed on the market of Kenya
 These Regulations prescribe rules relative to hygienic
conditions in the production, processing and handling of
food, including the growing and harvesting of raw
materials to be used in the preparation of food. Premises
used for the preparation, handling, storage, etc. of food
shall be licensed by the municipal health authority. Such
premises shall be registered in accordance with these
Regulations. Most of the required hygienic standards
260
regard food premises and health of persons handling food.
 Nurses Act (CAP. 257)
 This Act may be cited as the Nurses Act, 1983.
 Act Title: NURSES AND MIDWIVES
 An Act of Parliament to make provision for the training,
registration, enrolment and licensing of nurses, to
regulate their conduct and to ensure their maximum
participation in the health care of the community and for
connected purposes
 [Date of commencement: 10th June, 1983.]
 In 1983, the Council was finally acknowledged by an Act of
Parliament under the Nurses Act Cap 257 of the Laws of
Kenya as the "Nursing Council of Kenya".

261
 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACTS.
Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2007.
The Act applies to all workplaces where any person is
at work, whether temporarily or permanently.
Enforcement of the Act.
 Inspections – Occupational Safety and Health
Officers have powers to inspect every workplace by
day or by night. Any person obstructing such an
officer is liable to a penalty.
 Improvement notices and prohibition notices, issued
when contraventions recur and no action for
improvement is taken.
 Prosecution: for fresh and repetitive contraventions.
262
General Health Provisions.
 Cleanliness: No accumulation of dirt.
 Overcrowding: minimum 10m3 space for each person.
 Ventilation: Adequate free flow of fresh air.
 Lighting: Adequate & suitable for different occupations.
 Drainage of Floors: well drained floors.
 Sanitary Accommodation: sufficient for each gender.

Other Provisions:
 Machinery safety.
 Chemical safety.
 Welfare Provisions.
 Right to Compensation.

263
General Safety Provisions.
 Safe means of access: Floors, passages, gangways, steps, stairs and
ladders must be soundly constructed and properly maintained, and
handrails must be provided for stairs.
 Removal of dust or fumes –workers must be protected against inhaling,
and where practicable, localized exhaust ventilation must be provided
and maintained.
 Meals in Certain Dangerous Trades. - A person must not partake of
food or drink in workrooms where there are hazardous dusts or fumes.
 Protective Clothing and Appliances. – Suitable protective clothing and
appliances must be provided and maintained for the use of workers.
 Confined spaces. – Adequate precautions should be taken for work in
confined spaces where persons are liable to be overcome by dangerous
fumes.
 Explosions of Inflammable Dust or Gas. – Precautions should be taken
against explosions for welding or soldering on containers.
 Protection of Eyes. – Goggles or effective screens must be provided in
certain specified processes. 264
 Training and Supervision of Inexperienced Workers. – A
person must not work at any dangerous machine or
process unless he has been fully instructed.
 Fire. -Adequate and suitable means for extinguishing
fire must be provided in every workplace.
 Adequate fire exits must be provided and marked. All
doors affording a means of exit from the workplace
must be sliding doors or made to open outwards.
 Fire Safety Audit: Every occupier shall carry out a fire
audit of the work place once every twelve months.
 Evacuation procedures: - Every occupier of a
workplace shall design evacuation procedures to be
used during any emergency.
265
 Workman’s Compensation (CHAPTER 236)
 CHAPTER 236 - Workmen's Compensation Act.
 This Act may be cited as An Act of Parliament to provide for
compensation to workmen for injuries suffered in the
course of their employment the Workmen's Compensation
Act.
 The primary objective of the Workmen Compensation Act,
1923, is to provide financial relief to employees' families in
case of their death or injury at the workplace. The act also
provides cover for employees that get an occupational
disease while in employment.
 Concerned with Employment accident and occupational
disease benefit
 Workmen's Compensation Act, Cap 236. (Repealed by Work
Injury Benefits Act, No 13 of 2007). 266
 An employer is liable to pay compensation in accordance
with the provisions of this Act to an employee injured while
at work.
 An employee is not entitled to compensation if an accident,
not resulting in serious disablement or death, is caused by
the deliberate and willful misconduct of the employee.
 If you're involved in an accident at work or develop an illness
caused by your working conditions, you can claim from the
Compensation Fund. Here's what you need to know. You were
injured or contracted a disease while working (permanent or
casual), training or completing an apprenticeship.
 A Workmen/Workers Compensation policy covers the
statutory liability of an employer for the death, disability
and bodily injuries of his employees caused by accidents.

267
Children and Young Persons:
What is Children's Act in Kenya?
CHAPTER 141 - Children and Young Persons (Repealed) Act
 The Children Act, Chapter 141 is a Kenyan law. An Act of
Parliament to make provision for parental responsibility,
fostering, adoption, custody, maintenance, guardianship,
care and protection of children; to make provision for the
administration of children’s institutions; to give effect to
the principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the
Child and for connected purposes
 Part II provides for safeguards for the rights and welfare of
the child. Section 10 establishes that every child shall be
protected from economic exploitation.
268
Name: Children's Act, 2001 (No. 8 of 2001) (Cap. 141).
Country: Kenya
Subject(s): Elimination of child labour, protection of children and young
persons
 Comprehensive legislation on children. Divided into 14 parts. Part I
contains preliminary provisions. Part II provides for safeguards for the
rights and welfare of the child. Section 10 establishes that every child
shall be protected from economic exploitation and any work that is
likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's health or
physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. Also provides
for definition of "child labour". Part III regulates parental responsibility.
Part IV deals with administration of children's services, Part V with
children's institutions, and Part VI with children's courts. Part VII
provides for custody and maintenance, Part VIII for guardianship, and
Part IX for judicial orders for the protection of children. Part X
contains provisions regarding children in need of care and protection.
Part XI deals with foster and placement; Part XIII with child offenders.
Finally, Part XIV contains miscellaneous and general provisions
269
 SUCCESSION ACT (CAP 160)
CAP. 160 - Kenya Law
 Act Title: LAW OF SUCCESSION
 An Act of Parliament to amend, define and consolidate the
law relating to intestate and testamentary succession and
the administration of estates of deceased persons; and for
purposes connected therewith and incidental thereto.
 This Act may be cited as the Law of Succession Act.
 Law of Succession Act deals with the inheritance of the
deceased person, Inheritance is the practice of passing on
property, debts, rights & obligations.
 The Law of Succession Act Cap 160 provides for persons
that can inherit the property of a deceased person under
section 29 as dependants.
270
 Succession is the right and transmission of the rights and
obligations of the deceased to his heirs.
 The Kenya law of succession prescribes the rules which
determine what ought to happen to a person's estate after
his or her death. It is also referred to as the law of
inheritance i.e. transmission of property rights from the
dead to the living.
 The rules of succession identify the beneficiaries entitled
to succeed to the deceased's estate and the extent of the
benefits they are to receive. The Kenya law of succession
determines the different rights and duties that persons
(for example, beneficiaries and creditors) may have in a
deceased's estate.

271
 MENTAL HEALTH ACT (CAP 248)
 Act Title: MENTAL HEALTH
 An Act of Parliament to amend and consolidate the law
relating to the care of persons who are suffering from
mental disorder or mental subnormality with mental
disorder; for the custody of their persons and the
management of their estates; for the management and
control of mental hospitals; and for connected purposes.
 The Mental Health Act (1983) is the main piece of
legislation that covers the assessment, treatment and
rights of people with a mental health disorder. People
detained under the Mental Health Act need urgent
treatment for a mental health disorder and are at risk of
harm to themselves or others.
272
 The Mental Health Act (the Act) sets out the legal rights that
apply to people with a mental disorder. Under this law, a
person can be admitted, detained and treated in hospital for a
mental disorder without their consent. This can be a subject
that people find distressing or difficult to understand
 Section 3 allows for a person to be admitted to hospital for
treatment if their mental disorder is of a nature and/or degree
that requires treatment in hospital. In addition, it must be
necessary for their health, their safety or for the protection of
other people that they receive treatment in hospital.
 A Mental Health Act sets out the steps that must be taken by
specified mental health professionals in order for someone to
be placed under any type of compulsory treatment, including
how people are assessed in meeting criteria for a compulsory
treatment.
273
 Penal Code (CAP 63)
 The Penal Code - Chapter 63 - Kenya Police Service
 This Act may be cited as the Penal Code
 The Penal code Statutes is book that describes the
principles of criminal law in Kenya. The book explains the
elements of crime, the parties to a criminal act as well as
general punishments. It is a compilation of all criminal
offences recognized by law as well as the punishment
related to the offences stated.
 The penal code of a country consists of all the laws that
are related to crime and punishment.
 Penal code: a code of laws concerning crimes and offenses
and their punishment.

274
 Act Title: PENAL CODE: Act No. CAP 63
 An Act of Parliament to establish a code of criminal law

Why is the penal code important?

 Criminal codes are generally supported for their
introduction of consistency to legal systems and for
making the criminal law more accessible to laypeople. A
code may help avoid a chilling effect where legislation and
case law appears to be either inaccessible or beyond
comprehension to non-lawyers
 A criminal code is a document that compiles all, or a
significant amount of, a particular jurisdiction's criminal
law. Typically a criminal code will contain offences that
are recognised in the jurisdiction, penalties that might be
imposed for these offences, and some general provisions.275
HEALTH INFORMATION
SYSTEMS

276
INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEMS
The concept of information
 Data that have been processed and is read for use by
the recipient.
 Data that have been interpreted and understood by the
recipient of the message and provides a basis for
decision making.
 It is data which have been analyzed, summarized and
processed in some other fashion to produce a message.
 In its widest sense it covers all kinds of facts and
understanding having a bearing on organizational
management.
 Information – data that has been processed or
reorganized into a more meaningful form. 277
 THE CONCEPT OF DATA
 Facts, ideas, or concepts that can be collected and be
represented electronically in digital form.
 Data are facts obtained by reading, observation, counting,
measuring, and weighing etc. which are then recorded.
 It is raw or basic data and are often records of the day to day
transactions of the organization.
 Raw facts about people, places, events, and things that are of
importance in an organization.
 For example, the data, amount and other details of an invoice
or cheque, payroll details of pay, National Insurance and tax for
a person, the output for a machine or shift, the number of
vehicles passing a road monitoring point and so on.
 Data are derived from both external and internal sources.
 Most external data are in readily usable and concrete forms e.g.
– bank statements, purchase invoices.
278
NB:
 Knowledge – data and information that is further
refined based on the facts, truths, beliefs,
judgments, experiences, and expertise of the
recipient.

279
DEFINITIONS
 Health Information System - A set of components and
procedures organized with the objective of generating
information which will improve health care
management decisions at all levels of the health
system.
 Data – raw facts about people, places, events, and
things that are of importance in an organization.
 Information – data that has been processed or
reorganized into a more meaningful form.
 Knowledge – data and information that is further
refined based on the facts, truths, beliefs, judgments,
experiences, and expertise of the recipient.
280
 The Functions Performed by Information
 The reduction of uncertainty
 As an aid to monitoring and control
 As means of communication
 As a memory supplement
 As an aid for simplification
VALUE OF INFORMATION
 Information is vital for decision making
 Improves decision making
 Enhances efficiency
 Provides a competitive edge to the organization

281
 Data collection infrastructure
 Ideally, data should come from an information-
producing system that:
 Has strong legitimacy
 Has high-level political support
 Is transparent
 Includes policy, technical, academic and civil
society constituencies

282
Sources of data
 There are essentially two broad categories of data
sources:
(a) population based
(b) institution based.
 Surveillance systems, which combine population-
based and institution-based data, are sometimes
classified as a third category.

283
Population-based data sources
 Population-based data sources include sources that have
information on every individual in a population (for
example, censuses or vital registration systems) and
sources that have information on a representative sample
of the population (for example, household surveys).
Institution-based data sources
 Institution-based data sources gather data in the course
of administrative and operational activities, and thus only
include people that have had interaction with a given
institution. It is possible that administrative data from
institution-based sources could reflect the individual or
household level. Examples of institution-based data
sources include resource, service or individual records.
284
Data source types

Surveillance
Censuses
All data for health inequality systems
Population-based Vital registration
sources systems
monitoring

Household
surveys
Resource records
(e.g. number of hospitals)

Institution-based Service records

(e.g. number of immunizations
sources provided)

Individual records
(e.g. hospital charts)

285
Types of data
 There are two types of data –
a) Primary data
b) Secondary data.
 In the context of health care, primary data and
secondary data are distinguishable as follows:
 Primary data: Primary data are obtained from the
original data source. That is, documentation in the
patient’s medical/health record collected by staff at
either a hospital, clinic, out-reach or aid post. Daily
ward census reports collected in hospitals are also
primary data.

286
Secondary data:
 Secondary data are data sets derived from primary
data. Secondary data are individual or aggregate
health care data found in reports that are
summarized from the source. At the hospital or health
centre level, secondary data include the master
patients’ index, disease and procedure indexes,
health care statistics and disease registries. At
primary care level, they also include such aspects as
the patients’ name index and statistics.

287
What can be done to improve and ensure data quality
 Keep the design of the information system as simple
as possible
 Involve users in the design of the system
 Standardize procedures and definitions
 Design of data collection instruments
 Develop an appropriate incentive structure
 Plan for effective checking procedures
 Training
Data collection methods
There are two major data collection methods:
1. Manual
2. electronic
288
Health care data
 Health care data are items of knowledge about an
individual patient or a group of patients.
 In health care, data is captured about a patient in
paper or electronic format during his or her attendance
at an outpatient clinic, community health centre,
primary health care provider, or his or her admission to
a hospital.
 The data collected should include all relevant findings
relating to the patient’s condition, diagnoses,
treatment, if any, and other events as they occur.
 Whether the data is collected manually or in a
computer, it is important to ensure that the
information is correct at the point of entry. 289
 Types of routine data collection methods
 Health unit data collection
 Community data collection
 To monitor activities performed in the community by
health unit staff or by community health workers
 To obtain more representative data on the health status
and living environment of the communities served,
including data on births and deaths in the community,
agricultural and meteorological data, data on education
etc.
 To assist in planning for health services that are more
accessible to community
 Civil registration systems
290
 Data collection instruments
Curative
 Medical records
 Laboratory forms
 Referral forms
Preventive
 Growth cards
 MCH cards
 School health card
 Family registration records
 Home-based records: Immunization cards, Growth-monitoring card,
Maternal health card
 Health worker based records: Pregnancy/birth card, death report form,
child records, women’s register, workers work form
 Supervisor’s based: Supervisor’s roster
 Sub county-based records: Family enrollment forms, birth registers,
death registers, health worker’s report, supervisor’s report
 Home office- and donor-based reports of health project outputs and
population health status 291
 Data storage and analysis
 Data is normally stored, and analyzed using electronic
hardware and software in a network database.
 Manual storage in files properly indexed for easy retrieval.
Easy retrieval of data
 Indexing of data facilitates information retrieval. Effective
indexing of data assists the storage and retrieval of
information.
 Reference and research information is collected and
managed for use by staff and patients/consumers in
achieving the organization’s goals.
 The organization uniquely identifies all patients/consumers,
including newborn infants. The organization needs to
consider the efficiency and effectiveness of its system of
uniquely identifying patients/consumers. 292
Difficulties in Managing Data
 Amount of data increases exponentially.
 Data are scattered and collected by many individuals
using various methods and devices.
 Data come from many sources.
 Data security, quality and integrity are critical.
 An ever-increasing amount of data needs to be
considered in making organizational decisions.
 Solution: network database

293
 Information utilization: decision making
 For operation management and decision making-Data must
be transformed into information that will become the basis
for evidence and knowledge to shape health action.
 Dissemination and Use - The value of health information is
enhanced by making it readily accessible to decision-makers
and by providing incentives for, or otherwise facilitating,
information use.
Government planning and policy development.
 Government policymakers and health care administrators at
primary, secondary and tertiary levels of health care, as well
as doctors, nurses, other health care providers and health
information managers. All of these share responsibility for
the documentation, implementation, development, and
management of health information services. 294
 Providers of health care services need information not only at the point
of service but also at the point of decision making in a format that
maximizes the decision-making process.
Data collection, aggregation and use
 Patient/consumer care, management of services, education and
research are facilitated by the collection and aggregation of data.
 Data management - Relevant, accurate, quantitative and qualitative
data are collected and used in a timely and efficient manner for
delivery of patient/consumer care and management of services.
 Information created by the organization needs to be timely, accurate,
clear, concise and presented in a way that is appropriate to the users’
needs.
 The collection of data and reporting of information should comply with
professional standards and statutory requirements.
 Ensuring consistency is an important part of the data collection process.
Data consistency is promoted by complying with protocols, definitions
and standards. It is also promoted by the use of standard definitions,
symbols and abbreviations throughout the organization. 295
HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM
System
 A collection of components that work together to
achieve common objective.
Information System
 A system that provides information support to the
decision making process at each level of the
organization.
Health Information System
 A system that integrates data collection processing,
reporting, and use of the information necessary for
improving health service effectiveness and efficiency
through better management at all levels of health
services. 296
 A set of components and procedures organized with the
objective of generating information which will improve
health care management decisions at all levels of the
health
 A comprehensive and integrated structure that collects,
collates, analyses, evaluates, stores, disseminates, health
and health – related data and information for use by all.
 It is an integral part of a health system, the operational
boundaries of which include all resources, organizations
and actors that are involved in the regulation, financing,
and provision of actions whose primary intent is to
protect, promote or improve health.
 HIS is an integrated effort to collect, process, report and
use health information and knowledge to influence policy –
making, programme action and research 297
 DOMAINS OF HEALTH INFORMATION
 Health determinants
 Health system inputs
 HEALTH SYSTEM Outputs
 Health system outcomes
HEALTH INFORMATION SUBSYSTEMS
1. Disease surveillance and outbreak notification
2. Data generated through household surveys
3. Registration of vital events and consensus( e.g. birth, death and
causes of death).
4. Data collection based on patient and service records and
reporting from community health workers, health workers and
health facilities.
5. Programme specific monitoring and evaluation for example for
TB, HIV/AIDS etc.
6. Administration and resource management (including
finance/budget, personnel and supplies. 298
 FUNCTION OF HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM
1. Bring together data from all different subsystems
2. To share and disseminate data to the many different
audiences for health information
3. To ensure that health information is used rationally,
effectively and efficiently to improve health action.

299
 COMPONENTS OF HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM
 Ministry of Health
 Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS)
 Vital Registration
 Private Health Institutions
 Research Institutions
 Faith Based Organization (FBO), etc

300
 THE CURRENT LEVELS OF CARE IN THE HEALTH
SECTOR ARE:
 Level 1 – Community
 Level 2 – Dispensary and Clinics
 Level 3 - Health Centre including Maternity and
Nursing
 Level 4 - Sub – county Hospitals (Primary hospitals)
 Level 5 - County and general Hospitals (Secondary
Hospitals)
 Level 6 - National Referral Hospitals (tertiary

301
 BENEFITS OF HIS
 Helping decision makers to detect and control emerging and
endemic health problems, monitor progress towards health
goals, and promote equity.
 Empowering individuals and communities with timely and
understandable health related information, and drive
improvements in quality of services.
 Strengthening the evidence based decision making for
effective health policies, permitting evaluation of scale – up
efforts, and enabling innovation through research
 Improving governance, mobilizing new resources, and
ensuring accountability in the way they are used.
 Since a properly organized HIS is needed to produce
information for taking action, the development of HIS
strategic plan will provide clear road map for implementation
of planned activities. 302
 CURRENT HIS SUBSYSTEMS
There are various subsystems in HIS and are summarized
in the three categories namely:
 Health services information
 Population based data
 Management information
POPULATION BASED DATA
 Population based data include census, vital
registration and surveys
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
 Covers administrative records, health services, and
disease records.

303
 HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM DATA SOURCES
 Data collection based on patient and services records
and reporting from community health workers and
health facilities.
 Data generated through household surveys
 Registration of vital events (births, death and causes of
death)
 Disease surveillance and outbreak notification
 Programme specific monitoring and evaluation
 Administration and resource management ( including
finance /budget, personnel and supplies).

304
 USERS OF HEALTH INFORMATION
 At each of the health system, users of health information have different
needs and use information in different ways.
 At the most basic level of client – health worker interaction, patient
records are a vital of information at the individuals level, for reviews of
care and norms, confidential inquiries and facility based audit reviews of
provider practices.
 At the facility, managers need information on patient profiles, patterns
of admissions and discharges, length of hospital stay, use of medicines
and equipment, deployment of different categories of health care
workers and ancillary staff, costs and income
 At sub county, county and national level, policy makers, planners,
managers and other stakeholders use this information and data on
locally relevant population profiles and risk factors in decision making
regarding allocation of resources to different facilities
 Within the public health sector, such information is transmitted upwards
through sub county and county levels to the national level where basic
resource allocation decisions are made. 305
 INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW OF HIS
 Health Information System in Kenya has been
reviewed severally with a view of putting in place
sound systems that provides quantitative and
qualitative data which is essential for identifying
major health problems.

306
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD INFORMATION
Good information is that which is used and which creates value. Good
information is:
 Relevant for its purpose—relevant to the problem being considered.
 Sufficiently accurate for its purpose - Accurate for the purpose it
is intended
 Complete enough for the problem. Complete in respect of the key
elements of the problem.
 From a source in which the user has confidence - when the source
has been reliable in the past and when there is good
communication between the information producer and the
manager.
 Communicated to the right person – information directed exactly
where it is required.
 Communicated in time for its purpose. In time to be used
 That which contains the right level of detail – Detailed in
consistent with effective decision making. 307
 Communicated by an appropriate channel of
communication- Communicate through proper
channel e.g. – with regard to the nature and purpose
of the information, the speed required, and the
requirements of the user
 That which is understandable by the user - 1.
Information preferred by the user e.g. in the form of
pictures, narrative, statistical and facts 2.
Remembered knowledge, environmental factors, e.g.
group pressures, the time available, and trust in the
information system 3. Language

308
 THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION AND
MANAGEMENT
 Managers in organizations make decisions, prepare
plans, control activities by using information from
formal sources, e.g. from organizations
management information systems – or from
informal means, such as face to face
conversations, telephone calls, through social
contacts and so on.
 Managers are faced with-
 Accelerating rate of change
 More complex environment
 Considerable uncertainty. 309
TYPES OF HEALTH MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
 Management Information Systems
 Database Management Systems
 Decision Support Systems
 Question Answer Systems
 Information Retrieval Systems
 The Internet
SUMMARY
 Information increases knowledge, reduces uncertainty,
adds value when used.
 Data are facts which have been recorded
 Information is processed data which is understood by the
user.
 The value of information comes from its user
310
Objectives of Health Management Information Systems.
 The primary purpose of the organization is to satisfy
the needs of its clients.
 The system approach is objective oriented.
 The approach is a top – down one where what comes
before how.
 The purpose of the organization is expressed in its
objectives.
 Objectives express the direction and level of
achievement expected from the organization as a
whole and, at lower levels, from the individual parts,
sections and departments which make up the
organization.
311
 Types of Objectives in Health Management Information
Systems
1. Personal and Organizational objectives
 Helps to achieve individual and health organizational
objectives.
2. Multiple objectives – Series of objectives to cope with
the various responsibilities of a health survive
organization e.g.
3. Conflicting objectives
 Objectives are often in conflict and some compromise
is usually necessary
 Management have to overcome constrains which
hinder the fulfilment of objectives
 Hard issues are measurable, clearly defined with
known solution techniques 312
 Healthcare Information System
 Healthcare Information System (Hospital Information
System HIS)—a group of systems used to support and
enhance healthcare functions by use of computer
hardware and software to process data into
information for operation, management and decision
making.

313
Information Technology vs. Information System

Information Information system

technology Combinations of hardware,
software,
Combinations of and telecom networks that
hardware, people build and use to
software, and telecom collect, create, and distribute
networks use to useful data in organizations
(for decision making)
process data

314
Information Technology
 Computer equipment
 Hardware
 Software
 Telecommunication network

 To collect / store, process, and display data

315
Types of Healthcare Information
 Clinical information systems
 Directly support care
 Individual systems may be standalone
 Goal: data exchange among systems
 Administrative systems
 Indirectly support patient care
 Individual systems may stand alone
 Goal: data exchange among systems

316
1. Clinical Information Systems
 Nursing
 Monitoring
 Order entry
 Laboratory
 Radiology
 Pharmacy
 Other Ancillary Systems ( Physician Practice,
Ambulatory, Long-term, Home-care …)

317
2. Administrative Systems
 Client Registration
 Financial
 Payroll and Human Resource
 Risk management
 Quality assurance
 Contract management
 Materials management
 Scheduling
 Other Administrative Systems

318
 Steps involved in restructuring of Health MIS
Step 1: Identifying information needs and feasible
indicators
Step 2: Defining data sources and developing data
collection instruments for each of the indicators
selected
Step 3: Developing a data transmission and processing
system
Step 4: Ensuring use of the information generated
Step 5: Planning for health MIS resources
Step 6: Developing a set of organizational rules for
health information system management

319
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
AND PLANNING

320
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
What is project (work)?
 A temporary system of actions or activities to achieve
an objective, with clear start and finish date,
initiated and completed through a network of people
within the constraints of time, costs and
specifications.
OR
 “a specific, finite task to be accomplished” through
a network of People within the constraints of
schedule, budget targets and specifications.

321
 A project is a temporary effort to create a unique
product, service or result. A project has a definite
start and end.
 A project management plan is created by a project
manager. This plan requires a buy-in from all
stakeholders. The plan should be (SMART);
 S-Smart
 M-Measurable
 A-Achievable
 R-Realistic
 T-Time-bound.

322
Other Terms:
 Operational Work: An organization can either have
operational work or project work. The difference
between operational work and project work is that the
operational work is always ongoing whereas project work
has a definite end.
 Program: A group of projects is termed as a Program.
There are several projects carried out in an organization
and managing these projects independently becomes a
challenge for the organization. Hence, a group of related
projects is combined together in a program.
 Portfolio: A portfolio includes a group of programs and
individual projects that are implemented to achieve a
specific strategic business goal.
323
 OPM (Organizational Project Management): This is a
framework in which portfolio, program, and projects
are integrated with organizational enablers to
achieve strategic objectives.

324
 Main Characteristics of Projects
 Unique set of sequenced events and therefore none
repetitive within an organization;
 Has a defined scope;
 Has a start and a finish date;
 Limited resources and budget;
 Involves many people across functional areas in the
organization;
 Range in size, scope, cost and time;
 Goal oriented.

325
 Examples of Projects
Industrial Projects:
 Designing or Constructing a house
 Provide gas supply to an industrial estate
 Build a motor way
 Design a new car

Business Projects
 Develop a new course
 Develop a computer system
 Launch a new product
 Prepare annual report

326
Personal Projects:
 Obtaining an MBA (career project)
 Write a report
 Plan wedding
 Preparing a meal
 Plan a birthday party
 Plant a garden
 Build a house extension

Other projects:
 Disaster recovery operations;
 Olympic tournament;
 Preparing for a war: e.g. Gulf war
327
 Why are Projects Important?
1. Shortened project life cycle – increasingly, the life cycle of new
products is measured in terms of months or even weeks, rather
than years
2. Narrow project launch windows – organizations are aware of
the dangers of missing the optimum point at which to launch a
new product and must take a proactive view toward the timing
of product introductions
3. Increasingly technical and complex products – the public’s
appetite for “the next big thing” continues unabated and
substantially unsatisfied. People want the new models of their
consumer goods to be better, bigger (or smaller), faster and more
complex than the old ones
4. Emergence of global markets – the increased globalization of
the economy, coupled with enhanced methods for quickly
interacting with customers, has created a new set of challenges
for business 328
 Using project management, successful organizations
of the future will recognize and learn to rapidly
exploit the prospects offered by a global business
environment
5. An economic period marked by inflation companies
can’t continue to increase profit margins through
simply raising prices for their products or services.
As a tool designed to realize such goals as internal
efficiency, project management is also a means to
bolster profits

329
 PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
 A project life cycle refers to the stages in a project’s
development
 Life cycles are important because they demonstrate
the logic that governs a project
 They also help in developing plans for carrying out
the project

330
The Project Life Cycle

Project
Initiation
1

Post Project
Implementation Definition
Review

Project Project
Project Communication Planning
Closure
2
4
Monitoring Detailed
& Control Planning

Project
Execution
3
Project
Communication

331
(a)The conceptual / Initiation phase
 Establish corporate objectives and constraints;
 The development of the initial goal and technical
specifications for a project.
 Scope of the work is determined, necessary resources
identified and stakeholders signed on
 Identify the need for the project within corporate
strategy framework;
 Investigate feasibility of proceeding with project;
 Identify gaps in present market supply and areas of
potential demand growth;
 Identify long-term socio-economic trends in the
demand for different types of project etc.
332
(b) Design and Development / planning Phase
 Preferred option is designed in detail
 All detailed specifications, schematics, schedules and
other plans are developed. Individual pieces of the project
(work packages) are broken down into assignments and
process for completion clearly delineated
 The build method is outlined
 Determine resource requirements of each subsystem
 Develop detailed schedules and plans for implementing
the project
 Determine financial and operational goals and
performance monitoring criteria
 Prepare detailed job descriptions, work packages, manuals
and contract specifications etc.
333
(c) Implementation /Construction/ Execution Phase
 Actual implementation begins based on the plans
approved in the previous phase
 The actual “work” of the project is performed, the
system developed or the product created and
fabricated. The bulk of project team labour is
performed
 Contracts are awarded
 Construction proceeds as per the detailed plan.

334
(d) Commissioning and hand-over / Termination/
Closeout phase
 Occurs when the completed project is transferred to
the customer, its resources reassigned and the project
formally closed out. As specific sub activities are
completed, the project shrinks in scope and costs
decline rapidly
 The building is inspected to confirm that it has been
constructed as per the design/specifications.
 Approval is then given and hand-over to the owner
done.

335
What is Project Planning?
 Planning is described, in general, as selecting certain
enterprise objectives and establishing the policies,
procedures and programs necessary for achieving
them
 Project planning involves a series of steps that
determine how to achieve a particular community or
organizational goal or set of related goals and this
goal can be identified in a community or a strategic
plan
 Planning is an iterative process that is performed
throughout the life of the project

336
 Project planning plays an essential role in helping guide
stakeholders, sponsors, teams, and the project manager
through other project phases. Planning is needed to
identify desired goals, reduce risks, avoid missed
deadlines, and ultimately deliver the agreed product,
service or result. Without careful planning, project
performance is almost certainly guaranteed to suffer.
 Project planning requires breaking down a larger
project into tasks, assembling a project team, and
determining a schedule over which the work is to be
completed. During this phase, you create smaller goals
within the larger project, making sure each is
achievable within the time frame.
337
 Reasons for insufficient planning
The saying "failure to plan is planning to fail" certainly
holds true when managing projects. After all, how can
you manage a project without determining how and
when you are going to manage it? Yes, planning takes
time and effort, and is in no way exciting (for most of
us), but it is necessary for success. So why do project
managers rush this step?
 Unrealistic project expectations. The pressure to
complete a project in a specified amount of time may
have caused them to either skip or rush through the
planning phase.

338
 Impatience. This can play a significant role in why
project managers skip over the planning phase and
jump right into execution. This need to skip over the
most critical project management phase will likely
result in regret and rework, at the very least.
 A lack of understanding on how planning affects the
successful execution of projects may be one of the
biggest reasons planning is ignored.
What does careful planning help to achieve?
1.Planning identifies and reduces potential risks
 Risk is always lurking in the background, whether at a
micro or macro level. What may seem like a minor risk
to a task could pose a larger threat later during project
execution. 339
 Proper planning allows teams to ensure that risks can be
mitigated against and that smaller tasks roll-up into
milestones that meet with the larger goals of the project,
reducing potential risks.
2. Reducing project failure rates
 Planning is the second phase of project management. This
is where you cross the T's and dot the I’s (to take care of
every detail, even minor ones). It's where the scope of
the project is laid out, where the timeline, costs,
deliverables and the details are ironed out. This is where
expectations are set and assumptions are identified.
Without this vital step, it is almost certain things will fall
through the cracks and a project team is bound to miss
crucial details, deadlines and eventually deliverables.
340
How to become an expert planner
 To become an expert at planning, work on anticipating
all aspects of a project that will either create a win or
risk the outcome. First, determine if the project aligns
with broader business objectives. If it does not, the
project should be revisited more closely. There will be
situations whereby a project is still required in order to
address an isolated problem that may not necessarily
be part of the bigger strategic picture.
 Make sure to get a solid understanding of your end
goal(s), break down what needs to be done to meet
those goals, then identify tasks and milestones that are
needed to be achieved.
341
 Once you have done this, determine the resources needed to
complete each task and identify any potential risks or
obstacles, and how each risk can be addressed.
 The key in planning is to look at each of the knowledge areas
below and make sure you and your team will address each of
these areas in ways that will help reach all the end goals.
 Communications
 Costs
 Human resources
 Procurement
 Quality of deliverables
 Business requirements
 Risks
 Schedules
 Project scope
 Stakeholders 342
 Consider project planning and its activities the
starting and ending point of your project. All roads
lead back to this phase, including your activities and
final deliverables. Take the time to slow things down
and plan all aspects of your project, including tasks,
milestones, deliverables, costs, resources and all
other possible considerations before diving into your
project. This will help you avoid a considerable
amount of stress during project execution as well as
stakeholder disappointment at the time of delivery.

343
Project Planning
 Its main purpose is arrange time, cost and resources
adequately to estimate the work needed and to
effectively manage risk during project execution
Project planning generally consists of:
 Determining how to plan
 Developing the scope statement
 Selecting the planning team
 Identifying deliverables and creating the work
breakdown structure
 Identifying the activities needed to complete those
deliverables

344
WHAT IS PROJECT MANAGEMENT?
 A discipline of organizing and managing resources so as to
complete project on defined scope, time and cost
constraints
 A set of principles and tools for Defining, Planning,
Executing, Controlling, and Completing a PROJECT
 The discipline of project management is about providing
the tools and techniques that enable the project team
(not just the project manager) to organize their work to
meet these constraints
 Project Management is not about managing people alone.
It bifurcates project management into different process
groups and knowledge areas. Process groups include
initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling,
and closing. 345
 Knowledge areas include integration, scope, time
cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk,
procurement, and stakeholder management.

Project Management Concept

Success of a project means that the Project must
 Get Completed
 Get completed within time
 Be completed within allocated resources
 Perform to satisfaction
 Scope or Magnitude of the work

346
 What can one achieve with project management?
{Importance}
a) Complete projects on time, on budget and on target
b) Get proven strategies for clarifying project
objectives
c) Help one avoid serious errors of omission
d) Eliminate costly mistakes
e) Address the necessary people skills for acquiring the
cooperation, support
f) Obtain necessary resources to get work done

347
 Principles of Project Management
 A principle can be defined as an underlying fundamental law
or concept.
 Therefore, the principles of project management are the
fundamental rules that should be followed for the successful
management of projects.
Nine principles of project management
1. Formal project management structure
2. Invested and engaged project sponsor
3. Clear and objective goals and outcomes
4. Documented roles and responsibilities
5. Strong change management
6. Risk management
7. Mature value delivery capabilities
8. Performance management baseline
9. Communication plan 348
1. Formal Structure
 It’s important for projects to have a formalized structure,
including processes, procedures, and tools.
 A project should have both a project charter and project
plan, as well as a designated project team.
 This helps ensure it is prioritized and managed successfully.
2. Project Sponsor
 An effective project sponsor is critical to the success of a
project.
 Sponsors are there to champion your project and to be a
spokesperson for it with the other executives. A strong
sponsor can help overcome roadblocks such as the loss of a
key resource. Having an engaged sponsor makes it easier to
communicate progress, escalate issues, and guide
stakeholders through decision-making processes.
349
3. Goals and Outcomes
 Project requirements and approval criteria should all
be determined and documented at the beginning of the
project. It’s important to ensure these are reviewed
and approved by all key stakeholders, including the
sponsor and customer.
 The most common factor behind failed projects is a
lack of clear goals. Without clear requirements and
approval criteria, it will be difficult to tell if a project
is a success or not.
4. Roles and Responsibilities
 There are two forms that should be used for
documenting and defining the roles and responsibilities
of everyone involved with a project. 350
 For project team members, a RACI or RASCI is used to
define responsibilities and expectations. Here are what
the letters stand for: R= Responsible A= Accountable S=
Sign-off authority (not always used) C= Consulted I=
Involved
 For stakeholders outside of the primary project team, a
stakeholder register is compiled. This helps you document
who your stakeholders are, as well as important
information such as the following:
 Communication preferences (type and frequency)
 Contact information
 Level of influence on the project
 Engagement level with the project
 Their role within the company
 Other relevant information or notes 351
5. Management of Project Changes
 A project needs to have a well-defined scope to ensure the
outcome meets customer expectations, as discussed in the
goals section above. Without strong change management, a
project could suffer from scope creep, which is when the
scope of a project gradually grows beyond the initial project
guidelines.
6. Risk Management
 Since we cannot execute projects in a bubble, they all face
some risks. After all, a risk is simply an unexpected event that
impacts your project. It can be good or bad, and it can affect
your resources, technology or processes. In order to minimize
or eliminate the impact that risks will have on your projects,
it’s important to manage risk. This includes identifying,
evaluating and monitoring risks, as well as deciding upon
action plans to implement if the risks occur. 352
7. Value Delivery Capabilities
 Your value delivery capabilities are simply your project tools,
processes, and procedures that help you deliver value to your
customers. The more mature your processes and procedures
are, the more likely your project will be a success. For
example, if you have established and tested approaches for
delivering successful software projects, you will be better
equipped than if you’re starting from scratch.
8. Performance Management Baseline
 Projects typically have three basic components: cost,
schedule, and scope. Each of these components should have a
baseline or plan that performance can be measured against.
When these baselines are integrated, it’s called a performance
management baseline. This means that when you have a
change in any one of the components, its impact will be
reflected in the other two as well. 353
9. Communication
 If you’ve worked in project management for a while, you
may have heard the saying that project management is
90% communication. The success of a project requires
communication of project activities, risks, issues, and
status, both within the project team and with other
stakeholders.
 Communication is important for a variety of reasons,
including the following:
 Keeping stakeholders engaged.
 Coordinating tasks and schedules.
 Decision-making and problem-solving.
 Identifying and resolving conflicts (both within and outside
of the project).
 Escalating risks and issues. 354
The Traditional Triple Constraints

355
Time:
 Amount of time available to complete a project
 Estimated by identifying and summing up work effort
for each task within the WBS (work breakdown
structure)
Cost:
 The budgeted amount available for the project
 Depends on rates on labour, materials, risk, plant,
equipment and profit
Scope:
 Requirement specified for the end result
 quality, quantity etc.
 Depend on time and budget
356
 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES & PHASES
Phases of Project Management
 Projects big and small have a lot of moving parts. There’s so
much to coordinate and track to get from Point A to Point B
and execute a successful project. That’s why projects are
broken down into smaller, more digestible pieces, also known
as project phases. Project phases allow you to take your
unwieldy project and organize it so that you can wrap your
mind around it and make progress.
 In project management there are five phases: initiating,
planning, executing, controlling and closing. Throughout these
project phases there is a need to constantly monitor and
report, which is where project management tools come in.
Without project management tools, you’ll be scrambling to
gather actionable data, track progress and meet deadlines.357
PROJECT MANAGEMENT PHASES

358
The Five Phases of Project Management

1.Defining Project
Goals
2. Planning
3. Organizing
4. Monitoring and
5. Closing out Controlling
the Project

359
1) Defining the Project's goals (Initiation)
 Identifying what has to be accomplished
 Entails understanding and gaining agreement on the
overall objectives, scope, risk, approach, budget etc
 Develop a framework of identifying, tracking, managing
and resolving project issues.
 Defining metrics to give sense for how the project is
progressing etc.
 Define the deliverables to be created and their
description
 This is where all projects begin. The value of the project
is determined, as well as its feasibility. Before the
project is approved or rejected, these two documents
are created to sell the work to stakeholders or sponsors:
360
 Business Case: Here is where you justify the need of
the project, which includes analyzing return on
investment.
 Feasibility Study: You need to evaluate what the
project’s goals are, the timeline to completion and
how much the whole endeavor will cost. You also note
what resources will be required to fulfill the project,
and if it makes financial and business sense.

361
(2) Planning
 It aims at satisfying the triple constraints (budget,
specifications and time).
 The process of building work plans involves:
o Gathering pre-existing baseline documents
o Creating work breakdown structure (WBS)
o Raising and assigning/allocating resources (human,
material and financial)
o Timing (scheduling these resources)
 It is important to Plan well to avoid continual crises and
the need for constant "fire fighting".
 If the project is approved, then the next step is to
assemble a project team and to start planning how to
manage the project so it can achieve its goals within
budget and on time. 362
 The project plan will include what resources are
needed, financing and materials. The plan also gives
your team direction and the following:
 Scope: There will be a written scope statement that
reiterates the need for the project, and what its
deliverables and objectives are.
 Definition: Here you break down the larger
deliverables into smaller ones, which will help with
managing them.
 Tasks: Identify what tasks are necessary to produce
the deliverables, figure out if any tasks are dependent
on other tasks.
 Schedule: Determine the duration of the tasks and set
dates for their completion. 363
 Cost: Estimate the costs involved across the project and formulate a
budget.
 Quality: Make sure the quality objectives are met throughout the
project.
 Organization: Note how the project will be organized, including
reporting on progress.
 Staff: Determine roles and responsibilities of the project team.
 Communications: Decide how information will be disseminated, to
whom and with what frequency.
 Risk: Determine what risks are likely, how they’ll impact the project
and then plan how to resolve them. Try our free risk register
template if you need help getting started with risk management.
 Procurement: Decide what work or materials will be contracted.
Define those contracts and who they’ll go to.
 Gantt Charts for Planning & Scheduling
 A Gantt chart is the most dependable tool for project planning. A
Gantt chart is a visual representation of all your project tasks and
deadlines, laid out in a timeline format. 364
Gantt Chart /log frame:
 A Gantt chart or a logical frame work is a tabular
presentation of how and when specific tasks will be
performed, indicating who's responsible for what, with
what resources, plus how the achievement will be
monitored and evaluated.
 Helps in Project implementation entails identification of
relevant activities and tasks, computation of resource
requirements, assigning responsibilities and scheduling
activities of a Project Activity Plan (Activity Time-line -
Gantt Chart)

365
Gantt Charts

Activity Time Period / Duration Expected Resources Responsibility

Description (weekly, monthly, quarterly, Output / Requirements
(Examples) yearly, etc.) Outcome

J F MA MJ J A S O N D

Training

Construction

Community
mobilization
Procurement

Cost/Resource
Requirements

366
Gantt Charts

367
(3 ) Organizing (execution)
 Involves leading and giving guidance
 Entails coordinating and communicating to the people
involved
 Assemble the necessary resources for carrying out the work
defined in the plan
 Now that you’ve done your planning, it’s time to start the
project. This is where the rubber hits the road, but that
doesn’t mean you’re just cruising. This phase is made up of
these detailed processes:
 Executing the Plan: Follow the plan you created, assign
the tasks to team members and manage and monitor their
progress with project management tools, like a project
dashboard.
 Administrate: Manage the contracts secured in the project.
368
(4) Monitoring & Controlling
 Entails establishing a basis of control
→ Measuring, controlling, correcting plans etc.
 Sufficient authority needed for resource allocation
 Methods of monitoring progress of projects are
needed to allow adjustment when deviations from
plan are recognized.
 To ensure that the project plan is being actualized,
all aspects of the project must be monitored and
adjusted as needed. To do this, follow these
processes:
 Reporting: Have a metric to measure project progress
and an instrument to deliver this information.
369
 Scope: Monitor scope and control changes.
 Quality: Measure the quality of deliverables and make
sure that the planned quality is being met. If not,
evaluate how to improve the quality.
 Schedule: Keep track of delays or blocks that impact
the timeline of the project and adjust to stay on
track.
 Cost: Monitor expenses and control cost changes.
 Risk: Note changes in risk throughout the project and
respond accordingly

370
5) Closing out the Project
 Management actions
 Project is closed and resources returned or
released
 Working budget is closed
 Assessing of outcomes against the triple constraints
 Handing-over of the project facilities
 Consolidating lessons learnt.
 Complete project audits and documenting results etc.
 The project isn’t over once the project goals and
objectives have been met. The last phase of the
project is closing it out. This involves another set of
processes:
371
 Scope: Make sure the project deliverables have been
completed as planned.
 Administration: Close out all outstanding contracts
and administrative matters, archive the paperwork and
disseminate to proper parties.
 The project planning process starts before work on the
actual project begins and continues throughout the life
cycle of the project. Its main goal is to adequately
plan the time, cost and resources needed for the
project and thus to minimize risk. The main output of
the project planning process is the project plan (or
project management plan), which includes the project
schedule as well as various supporting plans.
372
 Project Management Planning — Step by Step
 The following is a simple guide that explains the basic steps of
project management planning. Note that the suggested order of
the steps is not binding, although it is applicable to most
scenarios.
Step 1: Identify Project Stakeholders
 Start your project planning process by identifying the
stakeholders of your project. Project stakeholders are
individuals, groups, or organizations who may affect or be
affected by a project.
Step 2: Identify Project Goals and Objectives
 A project’s goals and objectives depend on the needs of the
project stakeholders. Therefore, knowing who your stakeholders
are and what their needs are is the first step in determining your
project’s goals. A good way to determine stakeholders’ needs are
stakeholder interviews, which you should conduct at the very
beginning of the project planning process. 373
Step 3: Identify Project Deliverables
 Project deliverables are the tangible products that are
produced or provided as a result of the project. We can
generally distinguish between two types of deliverables:
 Project deliverables, such as the project plan, minutes,
or reports.
 Product deliverables, such as intellectual material,
consumer goods, contracts, and so on.
Step 4: Create the Project Schedule
 In traditional project management, the project schedule
lists all activities and deliverables with their intended
start and end dates, and thus provides a timeline for the
entire project.
 To work out the schedule for your project, you will need
to: 374
Step 5:Best Practices for Project Scheduling
 Many of the common problems in project scheduling
can be anticipated and mitigated, if not avoided
altogether.
Step 6: Outline the Project Plan
 Now that you know the contents of a project plan, it’s
time to look at how the project plan document is
structured. By default, a project plan starts with an
executive summary that provides an overview of the
entire project management approach, followed by
the project scope, goals and objectives, schedule,
budget, and other supporting plans.

375
SWOT Analysis in Project Management

376
SWOT Analysis in Project Management
 SWOT is an acronym of Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats and as these titles suggest
it is not purely a method used for controlling areas of
planning and risk, but it is also used to highlight areas
of the project that could be maximized to the benefit
of the whole project or individual areas where some
competitive advantage may be gained.
 It is used to evaluate particular activities of the
project in order to optimize their potential as well as
to evaluate risks in order to determine the most
appropriate way of mitigating those risks.

377
 SWOT analysis is normally performed during the initial project
start-up phase so that the elements of the analysis can form the
basis of the project plan, but it can also be used later in the
project if the project is running into difficulties with scheduling,
deliverables or budget and needs to be brought back on track.
Strengths
 Does the company have the necessary skills in-house?
 Has a budget been assigned to the project?
 What are the business benefits of completing the project?
 Will the project require new technology or equipment?
 How experienced is the project team on similar projects?
Weakness
 Is there a reliable estimate of costs available?
 Does the company have the budget to provide contingency funding?
 What are the drawbacks of the project?
 Will parts of the project need to be outsourced
 Is the proposed schedule realistic?
378
Opportunities
 Can a local project be leveraged nationally or
internationally?
 Do the competitors have any weaknesses?
 What are the latest industry trends?
 Are there any new, or imminent, technology
developments?
Threats
 Is there well-established competition already in the
marketplace?
 Are experienced staff difficult to replace?
 Has new technology been fully tested?
 Could national or global economic conditions affect the
project? 379
 The Benefits of Feedback
 Feedback is a vital part of any project manager’s
skillset. Not just giving it, but also receiving it. Let’s
talk about its role, why it’s so valuable and how to
get better at providing it.
 For a start, providing feedback—when done regularly
—keeps everyone on track. That’s beneficial for
anyone involved in the project.
 Clear and honest communication in the team and
during a project helps your employees avoid major
mistakes. Feedback saves you the time of correcting
someone’s work, or the regrets of a worker who feels
like he failed.
380
 You also form better relationships with the people in
your team. Feedback often involves criticism, which
is something most people aren’t comfortable with.
But when given in the right way, it can help them
evolve.
 There are the direct benefits of feedback related to
business growth, such as saving money, making more
sales, and completing a project on time.
 All this makes people on the team more engaged in
the work process. You might notice they show more
respect and loyalty once giving feedback becomes a
regular practice.

381
 The Skill of Providing Feedback
 For a project manager, it’s extremely important to
give feedback in the right way. While it is a powerful
practice that creates a visible positive effect, it can
also hurt people, lower their self-esteem or make
them feel underappreciated.
 To do this right, plan your approach. Avoid anything
that can be heard as blaming or judging. You want to
motivate people and show them areas for
improvement. Always explain your employees how
this is a win-win situation. Mention their strengths,
too, after which you can point one aspect they can
work on more.
382
 Make sure you’re specific. The employee should know
exactly what aspect of the project you’re talking
about, what they did wrong, and how it can be
improved.
 Give people time to understand your feedback and
make sure to receive their responses. They should be
comfortable with sharing how they feel about it. Be
open-minded and take into account your team
members’ points of view.
 Don’t forget to let them be part of the problem-
solving process. Even if you already have a specific
solution in mind, hear them out, then share your
proposal using some of their words or ideas.
383
 It is not uncommon that people aren’t actually sure what
happened or what their next step should be. That’s why you should
ask questions in the end and see if the other person received your
message. Follow up after a few days to see how they are doing and
whether there’s still an issue.
 Last but not least, encourage team members to provide
feedback as well. Leave your ego behind, ask them if they have
something to add about your performance and role as a manager,
and carefully listen to what they have to say. Let them give
examples too so you can see what exactly they mean, then discuss
this openly and together to find a way to make it work and use the
feedback effectively.
 Promoting feedback in a team should be your next move. Make
room (and plan time!) for it in the process of planning and
working on a project. In fact, it should be present at every
step. Give your employees time to get used to this new, open-
minded and feedback-friendly environment. 384
 PROPOSAL WRITING
What is a project proposal?
 A project proposal is a detailed description of a series
of activities aimed at solving a certain problem.
 The project proposal is a means of presenting the
project to the outside world in a format that is
recognized and accepted
 It gives details about why, what, when and where, as
well as how and how much, and whose the project is
and whom it is intended to benefit.
 A project proposal is the document that facilitates a
professional relationship between an organization and
outside contributors.
385
 Typically, a project proposal is the initial framework for
establishing the concept of the project and includes what you
want to accomplish, an explanation of objectives, and plans
for achieving them. It is common for a project proposal to
include a list of activities or tasks that will be associated with
the project, illustrate the significance of this specific project
idea, and explain the origins of this project.
 A project proposal is also the marketing document that kicks
off a relationship between an organization and outside project
stakeholders.
 Creating a proposal allows an organization to establish a
formal, logical presentation to an outside worker or project
donor. Proposals are generally drafted during one of the early
phases of your project (before detailed plans are made and
resources are allocated). Therefore, time and budget
estimates are often rough, at best. 386
The proposal should contain a detailed explanation of
the:
 Justification of the project;
 Activities and implementation timeline;
 Methodology; and
 Human, material and financial resources required.

387
 The purpose/role of project proposals in project
management
 Organizations require it for funding their goals thus
clear project proposals essential for success
 Presents the project to the outside world
 It describes a series of problem solving activities
 It is a tool — not a goal. It should be followed as
closely as possible, and deviations should occur only
when necessary.
 Proposal writing is one of the phases of project
management. It is one of the numerous actions that
form a logical sequence of events usually referred to
as the project cycle.
388
 A proposal is required to get executive buy-in for a
new project, program, or service at your
organization.
 It is used to get everyone on the team thinking about
the same goals and priorities.
 It serves as a way for the organization to know when
they need to make new hiring decisions or budget
adjustments. Successful organizations get their
project proposals and engage in project planning
before seeking out budget or executive buy-in.

389
 Characteristics of a Good project Proposal
 The need for the proposed activity/project is clearly
established, preferably with data.
 All important portions and ideas are highlighted.
Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the
proposal in accordance with the laid down proposal
guidelines.
 The objectives of the project are given in detail.
 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project,
or at least sample portions of such a complete project
schedule.
 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the
proposed project is evident in the proposal. The
commitment of all parties is evident, e.g., letters of
commitment and cost sharing details be in the appendix390
 WHY PROPOSAL FAIL
80% of proposals submitted fail
Failed to follow one or more of the submittal
requirements
 Not convincing. No innovative ideas
 Budget was unrealistic or incomplete
 Proposals failed to clearly demonstrate a need for the
funding
 Proposal problem is too ambitious relative to the
ability of your organization to have a favourable
impact on the problem

391
 Criteria of a Good Project Proposal
 A proposal should be compelling
 The proposal should be clear and its argument must
be consistent and logical.
 The proposal should be convincing and it must show
that the organization submitting the proposal has the
capacity to achieve its objectives.

392
Advantages of a clear project proposal
1. Establishes Project Viability.
 Clear proposals prove the viability of a project or
program.
2.Clarifies Expectations.
 Increase clarity regarding requirements and project
roadmap.
3.Creates Structure.
 Structure and organization is established up front,
reducing the chance for misalignment.
4.Increases Budget.
 Successful proposals lead to approved budgets and
financial support for organizational growth and project
replication. 393
5.Fuels Business Growth.
 Proposals play an integral part in organizational growth,
helping in budget approval and new client adoption.
6.Exposes the Brand.
 Reaching out to stakeholders and building alliances
increases credibility and exposure in the community at
large.
7.Ensures Future Success.
 Having detailed your project’s methods and measurement
tools in advance builds accountability into every step of
your work.
8.Establishes How to Plan for Success.
 Integrating grant writing into day-to-day work turns
proposals into useful planning documents and detailed
templates for project implementation. 394
 Types of project proposal
1. Formally Solicited
 A formally solicited project proposal is established in
response to an official request for a new proposal. In
this case, a Request for Proposal (RFP) document is used
to outline client demands and specific needs. A formally
solicited proposal is the structured and specific
response to said RFP. Having an RFP makes the entire
proposal process easier. As the specifics are spelled out,
project planning can prevent misunderstandings or a
lack of information that may cause complications later.

395
2. Informally Solicited
 An informally solicited proposal does not require an
RFP. That is, there is no specific document required to
outline customer or audience demands. This is the
initial rough starting point when proposing a project’s
viability. The major differentiator between a formal
and informal project proposal is the number of details
involved in planning. Informal proposals lack granular
project details, such as goals, deliverables, and
methods. An informally solicited project proposal can
be understood as a proposal request that is lacking
specifics.

396
3. Unsolicited
 Unsolicited project proposals can be compared to a
cold call — no one asked for or expected to receive
one, but if the audience can relate to the proposal, it
can prove extremely valuable. Unsolicited proposals
can be the most difficult types to write, as you will
have to put extra work in to convince the audience of
the project’s viability. Many times, these proposals
require the most research as the audience is unaware
that the proposal is even coming their way.

397
4. Continuation
 Continuation project proposals are essentially an
update or reminder for ongoing and already approved
projects. This type of proposal is the simplest to
construct, as it is a continuation of already existing
documentation. A continuation proposal can be
thought of as a check-in with the audience to ensure
the correct funds are provided for the next phase, as
well as discussing progress and accounting for any
changes before moving forward.

398
5. Renewal
 A renewal project proposal is required when an ongoing
project has been terminated or the resources and support
behind such project can no longer be used. This proposal is
more about proving that the return on investment is greater
than the money being spent on resources so that the project
can begin again.
6. Supplemental
 A supplemental project proposal is required when more
resources are required to complete a project than were
originally proposed. The main goal of a supplemental proposal
is to prove the value of adding resources and update the
audience with a timeline based on this new plan. Many times,
a supplemental proposal is required when the original project
scope has grown beyond initial expectations. It can be seen as
a continuation of the original proposal document. 399
 How to Write a Project Proposal
 After considering what type of proposal is the best fit for you
and your project, it is time to start planning your document.
 It is imperative to keep in mind that, regardless of the
proposal type, you will always want to check the following
boxes when starting a proposal document.
 Define your audience.
 Determine the problem being solved by your proposal.
 Conduct research on the current state of the issue and
potential solutions.
 Proactively determine the effect that this project will have
on company success.
 Establish a timeline and determine the type and amount of
resources required.
 Begin to outline your proposal document.
400
 Elements of a Project Proposal
1. Cover Sheet
2. Project Summary
3. Executive Summary
4. Introduction and Situational Analysis
5. Goal, Objectives, Strategies and Activities
6. Logical Framework
7. Management and Workplans
8 . Project Budget
9. References
10.Annexes

401
 Sample Project Proposal Outline
Section 1: Project Information
 This section intends to provide a high-level picture of
the project as well as convey the most critical project
details.
Include the following in this section:
 Name of the Organization
 Project Title
 Project Summary
 Project Timeframe
 Prepared By
 Attached Documentation
 Project Contacts (any individuals involved in the
project) 402
Section 2: Project Summary
 The goal of this section is to present the reasons for doing
this project as well as stating all of the objectives. In this
section in particular, it is very important to write concisely
and clearly. Some project professionals even suggest
writing the project summary last.
Before you begin writing, you should be able to answer the
following questions.
 Why are you doing this project?
 What will you be doing?
 How will you be doing it?
 Who will be doing it?
 Where will it be done?
 How long will it take?
 How much will it cost? 403
 Project Background: This section of the proposal
requires a few succinct sentences that clarify the
problem your proposal is tackling. Here, it is critical
to explain the current state of the problem and why
your audience should care about solving it. Make sure
to include references and statistics in this section.
Best practice is to keep this no longer than 1 page.
 Project Objectives: Use this section of the proposal
to explicitly list the goals that the project is trying to
achieve.

404
Section 3: Project Methodology
 The project methodology section of a proposal is where you
detail the plan for how the objectives mentioned in the previous
section will be achieved. This is the first section of the proposal
that details the course of action to remedy the problem and is
meant to prove that adequate research has been done for this
decision. To start, outline the methodology being used, the
population being addressed, and establish the process for
reaching your objectives.
This section is typically broken into three parts:
 The Project Approach Summary: Use a few sentences to
describe the overall approach to the project. This includes how
the team will be organized, what tools will be used, and how
changes will be addressed during execution.
 Task Breakdown and Time Estimates: This is the section of the
proposal where a detailed project schedule is presented. 405
 To start, make a list of tasks that are required for the
project as well as an estimation of the hours required to
complete each one. From there, you can take a look at
your resource pool and allocate your team accordingly. The
purpose of this section is to establish the time and steps it
will take to achieve the solution, as well as the resources
involved in each section. Here is where you start to see
ideas turn into action. A project proposal will often include
a Gantt chart outlining the resources, tasks, and timeline.
 Project Deliverables: This is where you list out all the
deliverables you expect to see after the project is closed.
For example, this could be products, information, or
reports that you plan to deliver to a client. Ensure that
each deliverable has an associated estimated delivery
date. 406
Section 4: Project Risk Management
 This section is dedicated to managing change during
project execution. Clients know that a proposal rarely
covers everything that is required to achieve the given
project, so change management techniques are required.
Establish how you will monitor project success throughout
its entire life cycle to show clients that when and if change
occurs, the project will not go haywire.
This section is broken into two parts:
 Risk Management Plan: A detailed plan of action to
minimize the chance of risk or change during the project
lifecycle.
 Risk Register: A line-item list of risks and potential
counter efforts that will be used to counteract these risks.
407
Section 5: Project Costs
 This section is dedicated to estimating the overall cost of
the proposed project.
This section is broken into three major parts:
 Project Budget: This should be a detailed, line-item
budget broken up by different project categories, such as
travel, salary, or supplies. Ensure all overhead or indirect
costs are also included in the budget.
 Budget Narrative: This is a brief list of commentaries on
the budget if any further clarification or justification is
needed.
 Additional Financial Statements: Some projects,
depending on complexity, will require additional financial
statements like a profit and loss statement, a tax return,
or funding sources. 408
Section 6: Conclusion
 The conclusion section of a project proposal intends to
be a brief review of all the points already discussed. This
is your last chance to win over your audience, so ensure
that you incorporate the most important evidence to
receive approval. This is also the final moment to prove
you have adequately researched all solutions and your
proposed method is the best for business.
Section 7: Appendix
 This section is dedicated to any additional charts,
graphs, images, or reports that were cited in the
proposal. Many times, referenced material will go into
the appendix as it does not naturally fall into the main
body copy of the proposal.
409
 What is a Work Plan?
 “A work plan is an organization of future events and
activities”
 “A planning tool where departmental objectives of an
organization are translated into actual activities to be
performed within the actual allocated resources by
specific individuals”

410
 Importance of Work Planning and Organization
 Enables staff see connection between their daily
activities and goals set both in strategic plan and
departmental annual work plan
 Promotes result-oriented and customer-focused
culture
 Empowers employees in setting, programmatic goals
critical to success of organization.
 Facilitates planning and communication
 Enable better flow of work
 Enhances coordination
 Ensures better time management – Timelines

411
TYPES OF PLANS
1. Strategic Plans
2. Annual Operations Plans (annual work plans)
3. Departmental plans
4. Individual work plans

412
 Types of Plans in project management
1. Operational Planning
 “Operational plans are about how things need to
happen. “Guidelines of how to accomplish the mission
are set.”
 This type of planning typically describes the day-to-day
running of the company.
 Operational plans are often described as single use
plans or ongoing plans. Single use plans are created for
events and activities with a single occurrence (such as
a single marketing campaign). Ongoing plans include
policies for approaching problems, rules for specific
regulations and procedures for a step-by-step process
for accomplishing particular objectives. 413
2.Strategic Planning
 “Strategic plans are all about why things need to
happen,” Story said. “It’s big picture, long-term
thinking. It starts at the highest level with defining a
mission and casting a vision.”
 Strategic planning includes a high-level overview of
the entire business. It’s the foundational basis of the
organization and will dictate long-term decisions. The
scope of strategic planning can be anywhere from the
next two years to the next 10 years. Important
components of a strategic plan are vision, mission and
values.

414
3.Tactical Planning
 “Tactical plans are about what is going to happen,” Story
said. “Basically at the tactical level, there are many
focused, specific, and short-term plans, where the actual
work is being done, that support the high-level strategic
plans.”
 Tactical planning supports strategic planning. It includes
tactics that the organization plans to use to achieve what’s
outlined in the strategic plan. Often, the scope is less than
one year and breaks down the strategic plan into actionable
chunks. Tactical planning is different from operational
planning in that tactical plans ask specific questions about
what needs to happen to accomplish a strategic goal;
operational plans ask how the organization will generally do
something to accomplish the company’s mission. 415
4. Contingency Planning
 Contingency plans are made when something
unexpected happens or when something needs to be
changed. Business experts sometimes refer to these
plans as a special type of planning.
 Contingency planning can be helpful in circumstances
that call for a change. Although managers should
anticipate changes when engaged in any of the
primary types of planning, contingency planning is
essential in moments when changes can’t be
foreseen. As the business world becomes more
complicated, contingency planning becomes more
important to engage in and understand
416
Business plans for each department
 If your business has grown to contain a series of
departments, each with its own targets and objectives, you
may need to draw up a departmental business plan.
Department plans
 A departmental manager will typically write a business plan
for their department, usually under guidance from the
business owner. Some people prefer to call it an operational
plan. Whatever the name, such plan may:
 Detail any current responsibilities or commitment of the
department
 Include a SWOT analysis of the department
 Analyze previous performance
 Collect and review historical information on income and
expenses 417
 Create financial forecasts
 Determine departmental goals and initiatives
 Align individual plans with wider business strategy
 Draft tactical plans and propose budget, resource, timescales,
etc.
 The manager will then have to agree how their plan fits with
other departments, solicit feedback, negotiate - if needed -
with senior management, and secure approval. It's important
for each department to feel that they are a stakeholder in the
plan.
 Each department's budgets and priorities must fit in with those
of the entire organisation. Department plans need to be more
specific than the overall business plan. It's important that you
set realistic and achievable objectives for each department.
Find best practices to help you measure performance and set
targets. 418
QUALITY ASSURANCE IN
HEALTH SERVICES

419
Introduction
 Quality is currently a key policy in both service and
product markets.
 Quality normally includes achievement of a
predestined standards or targets, also includes
involvement of client requirements in the
determination of such targets or standard and the
consideration of available resources ;financial and
others in the achievement of such a target and the
recognition that there is always a room for
improvement and the targets and standards must be
reviewed regularly

420
Quality of health care
 Fully meeting the needs of those who need the
service most, at the lowest cost to the
organization/individuals and within the limits set by
higher authorities.
 Customer: a person who buys/takes goods or services
 Can also supply {internal-give and take within the
organization e.g. staff while external consumes only
patients & stakeholders}

421
Why quality of health care is important
 Patient satisfaction-better health outcomes
 Criteria for assessing our output
 Better relationship between fellow workers, patients
and communities in the service. Poor quality has been
a source of labour disputes.
 Good name of the institution( increases patronage)
 More finances to the organization
 Satisfy needs of our customers.

422
Poor quality services may lead to:
 Loss in terms of finances
 Loss of time (waiting time)
 Wastage of the good will of the facility ( erode)
 High morbidity & mortality rates
 High cost of services
 Litigation
 Soiling the organization name.
Why quality of care is important (merits)
 Mostly its concerned on excellence (high standards) .
Because all the rest are competing for higher standards)
 Concerned about recovering costs or converting costs into
advantages
 Cost is a key concern to any manager and managers are
always concerned on reducing operational costs. 423
 Satisfaction in terms of the patients and staff.
 More customers will be attracted
 Interpersonal staff development ( same recreation
facilities e.g. tea rooms, promoting team work) what
the doctor knows the rest should know little about.
 Vertical and horizontal integration & interpersonal
relationships.

424
 Definitions
Quality
 It is conformance to standards and fitness of purpose
Quality Assurance (QA): A process that focuses mainly on
measuring compliance with established standards
In Health –
The most desirable outcome of a health intervention in
terms of:
 Maximum well-being for the client, considering:
 Risks and benefits
 Gains and loses
 Provider satisfaction
 Efficiency
 Individual and social balance 425
Quality assurance
First definition
 Kelly, 2006- Approach which involves elimination of defects
in reference to tangible products-what you see while in
service industry- intangible products which is performance
in accordance to set targets.
 When targeting in quality assurance relative terms are
avoided. Must be specific to the expectation e.g. shall,
will, should to avoid ambiguity.
Second definition
 Delivering cost effective, efficient, high quality health
services and includes all actions to make it even better.
 Cost effective: services which have value for money.
 Effective: able to meet client needs
 Efficient services: offered in real time 426
 Quality management:
 Can be defined as a systematic managerial
transformation designed to address the needs &
opportunities of the entire organization, as they try
to cope with increasing change complexity and
tension within the environment your working in.
 Engages the principle of quality improvement which
identifies gaps, that exists between the services
actually provided and expectation for the services.
 Calls for continuous quality improvement to always
better the services.

427
Key principles in quality management
 Change acceptance-embracing change
 Acceptance to continuous improvement systems
 Setting quality standards
 Focus on customer needs; the customer is the king
 Embraces team work

428
 Sources of data
 Health systems incorporate data from more than one
level of data collection (clients, providers, facilities,
population)
 Two categories of sources:
Routine
 Data collected on a continuous basis e.g. Facility
based data (Service statistics)
Non-routine
 Data collected on a periodic basis e.g. facility based
surveys

429
 DATA QUALITY - DEFINITION
 Quality DOES NOT MEAN zero defects
 “Quality” is relative – based on what is acceptable or fit for
the purpose – rather than a concept of absolute perfection
 Data has quality if it satisfies the requirements of its
intended use
 All features and characteristics of data that bear on its
ability to meet stated needs and expectations of the user
THE NEED FOR DATA QUALITY
 Quality data = life-blood of programmes
 “While hardware and software are the infrastructure, the
veins and arteries of a system, it is the data that actually
gives the system life”
 All decisions about programmes are wholly governed by the
quality of data generated and used 430
 Data quality dimensions
Quality data have 6 key attributes:
 Accuracy or validity
 Reliability
 Timeliness
 Completeness
 Precision
 Credibility or integrity

Accuracy or validity
 Data are correct and explicitly reflect the object or
transaction it describes

431
Reliability
 Data are measured and collected consistently – based
on protocols and procedures that do not change
according to who is using them, when or how often
they are used
Timeliness
 Data are up-to-date (current) and available on time
(available to the end-user when needed)
Completeness
 All the expected attributes are appropriately inclusive
 Data represents the complete list of all eligible
persons or units

432
Precision
 Operationally defined in clear, understandable terms -
have the expected sufficient detail
Credibility or integrity
 The degree to which users trust both the accuracy
and reliability of data
 Data should be protected from deliberate bias or
manipulation (political or personal reasons)

433
 What influences data quality?
 Poor data quality is more of a behavioural rather
than a technology problem
 Lack of clear mechanisms for data ownership
and accountability for data quality
 Inability to address data problems due to lack
of time, competing priorities, inability to
access correct information, lack of authority, or
unavailable administrative support
 Motivational issues such as the desire to focus
on more challenging work or a reluctance to
expose data problems created by co-workers
434
Factors that influence data quality
There are 3 general factors:
1. Technical determinants
 Standard indicators
 Data collection forms
 Information technology
 Data presentation
 Personnel training

2. System / environmental determinants

 Resources
 Roles and responsibilities
 Organizational culture
435
3. Behavioral determinants
 Motivation
 Attitudes and values
 Confidence
 Sense of responsibility

436
Challenges in ensuring data quality
 It requires cross-functional cooperation
 No specific unit or department feels it is responsible
for the problem
 It requires the agency to acknowledge that poor data
quality is a problem
 It requires discipline across the board
 It requires an investment of financial and human
resources
 It is perceived to be extremely manpower-intensive
 The return on investment is often difficult to quantify
and hence justify

437
 Addressing Data Quality Issues: Data Quality Audits
 Phase 1: Self-assessment and Process Assessment
 Phase 2: Verification and Validation
 Internal audit
 External audit
 Requires a comprehensive data quality program built
on four principles:
 Prevention
 Detection
 Correction
 Accountability

438
Challenges in the implementation of quality systems
Top management issues
 Resistant to change ( holding in to old concepts)
 Do not belief in quality managements concepts
 Do not commit to be involved
 Lack of commitment of enough resources
 Looking for short term results

439
 How do you measure quality in health care?
 Quality measures are tools that help us measure or quantify
health care processes, outcomes, patient perceptions, and
organizational structure and /or systems that are associated with
the ability to provide high-quality care and /or that relate to one
or more quality goals for health care.
Measures of quality:
 Quality can be measured in following ways:
1. Process measures
 Process measures assesses if a provider of service is generally
following the required professional and technical aspects e.g.
S.O.Ps (standard operating procedures). It shows what a provider
does to maintain or improve
 Process measures can inform consumers about medical care they
may expect to receive for a given condition or disease, and can
contribute towards improving health outcomes. 440
2. Structural Measures
 Structural measures gives consumers a sense of health
care providers capacity, systems, and processes, to
provide high quality of care.
e.g.
1. The ratio providers to patients
2. No of specialists in a facility
3. Outcome measures
 Outcome measures reflects the impact of the health
care service or intervention on the health status of
patients . For example:
1. The % of patients who died as a result of surgery
2. The rate of surgical complications or hospital
acquired infections. 441
Measures of quality:
Entity Description Example

Structure Asses the Does an intensive care

characteristics of a unit (ICU) have a
care setting, including critical care specialist
facilities, personnel, at all times?
and/or policies
related to care
derivery

Process Determines if the Does a doctor ensure

services provided to that his or her
patients are patients receive
consistent with recommended cancer
routine clinical care therapy?
Outcome Evaluates patients What is the survival
health as a result of rate for patients who
the care received experience a heart
attach? 442
Patient measures
 Patient experience measures provides feedback on
patients experiences of their care, including the inter-
personal aspects of care.
 These includes how the patient was received at the
health facility, staff attitudes, availability of
commodities, level of involvement, hospital environment
etc.
 Outcome/out puts: assessing if the customer has
received positive or negative services.
 Processes: all that an employees does to deriver a
service to a client e.g. in immunization cold chain
maintenance, vaccine management, actual immunization,
documentation, advice to the caretaker etc.
443
Patient measures
:Health care professional Assesses the quality of Did the physician tell
care provided by an the patient how his
individual health care lifestyle affects his
professional diabetic condition
Patient experience Provides feedback on Do patients report that
patient experience of their provider explains
care their treatment options
in ways that are easy to
understand?
provider Assesses the quality of Does the hospital provide
providers facilities services for kidney
and /or the overall dialysis
quality of care provided
Health plan Assesses the services Does the health plan
provided by the health cover the treatment of
plan and the over all kidney failure
performance of providers
in the plans network

444
 Standards in measuring health care
 Quality measurements in health care is the process of
using data to evaluate the performance of health
plan/interventions and health care providers against
recognized quality standards
 Measuring the quality of health care is important
because it tells us how the health system is
performing and leads to improved care.

445
Sources of data on health care quality
Some common sources of the data that are currently used to
track quality measures include:-
 Administrative data: these includes health insurance
claims that are used to bill payers for health care services.
 However the administrative data may be insufficient to
determine weather the services were appropriate for the
patients who received them.
 Disease registries: These are organized systems that
capture data on patients with a specific disease or
condition beyond that is available in administrative claims
data. e.g. surveillance data, Centre for Disease Control
and Prevention, births and deaths, as well as the Census
data.
446
 Medical records: the information that providers keep
on patients.
 Health records contains far more detail than claims
data, including information on medical histories and
current medical conditions
 Qualitative data: qualitative data, such as data from
patient surveys, focus groups, and interviews, provide
the level of detail needed for reporting the patient
experience measures.
 These data are generally collected through patient
surveys that are administered by mail, phone or
email, and their provide feedback on many different
elements of the care clients receive.
447
NB:
 Quality management does not just happen, it’s a
deliberate attempt to always identify bottlenecks in
service delivery, while at the same time seeking to
address the concerns, and consistently improving
every part of the process.
 To ensure adherence to quality; SOPS are developed
 Health information is skewed to the provider

448
MONITORING AND
EVALUATION

449
 What is monitoring and Evaluation?
 A process of determining progress based on the
planned objectives with a view to identifying
unforeseen constraints, thus making necessary
changes in time.
 Routine supervision is one of the most effective
methods for monitoring and evaluating the
implementation of a project.

450
 Monitoring
 Routine tracking and reporting of priority
information about a programme /project and it’s
intended outputs, outcomes and impacts
 Routine collection and analysis of information to track
progress against set objectives
 Helps identify trends and patterns, adapt strategies
and inform decisions for project/programme
management
 A continuous collection and analysis of data on
specified indicators to provide information on the
extent of progress and achievement of objectives in
an ongoing project
451
 Monitoring means to keep track of and to check
systematically all project activities.
 This enables the evaluation and examination and
appraisal of how things are going on the project.
 Monitoring means to make sure sufficient intelligence is
gained on the status of the project so that an accurate
and timely evaluation can be conducted of the project.
 The emphasis in monitoring is on checking progress
towards the achievement of an objective.
 Identifies any bottleneck that may arise providing timely
solutions to ensure the project is not derailed.
 A good monitoring system will thus give an early warning
on the implementation of a course of action, that the
end goal will be reached as planned. 452
 WHAT IS EVALUATION?
 Time-bound exercise that attempts to assess
systematically and objectively the relevance,
performance and success of programmes /projects
 Involves a systematic, objective analysis of a project’s
outcome and impact in relation to its goals & objectives
 Measures how well programme activities have met
expected objectives and/or the extent to which changes
in outcomes can be attributed to the program or
intervention
 Determine the degree to which changes in outcomes,
such as increased knowledge or improved prevention
methods are the result of program activities

453
 The systematic and objective assessment of an
ongoing or completed project, program or policy, its
design, implementation and results.
 The aim is to determine the relevance and fulfilment
of objectives, development efficiency, effectiveness,
impact and sustainability.
 An evaluation should provide information that is
credible and useful ,enabling the incorporation of
lessons learned in to the decision making process of
both the recipients and donors.
 Evaluation also refers to the process of determine the
worth or significance of an program/ project.

454
 Note: evaluation in some instances involves the
definition of appropriate standards, the examination
of performance against set standards, an assessment
of actual and expected results and the identification
of relevant lessons.
 Evaluation is the determination of merit or
shortcoming.

455
 Differences between Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring Evaluation
Routine& continuous Time bound
Internal to program External/internal
Regular Periodic
Measure actual Measure overall changes
performance due to program
Track cost Inform future resource
Done by those in allocation
program Rigorous and requires a
design
Improve efficiency
Improve effectiveness

456
 Concept of Monitoring & Evaluation
 What gets measured gets done:- Monitoring and
evaluation ensures projects/programs are done in
adherence to set plans, set budgets, timelines, and
deliver to the expectation.
 It’s not done unless it’s documented:- M&E gives
evidence of the works done, by documenting the
projects success against the set criteria.

457
 Importance of monitoring and evaluation:
 Governments are increasingly being called upon to
demonstrate results.
 Must demonstrate that they are making a difference in the
life's of their people and that value for money, has been
delivered.
 Generating information for evidence based decision making
e.g. weather to continue investing or divest the project
Others importance includes
 Organization learning:-implementing learnt lessons
 Promotes accountability
 Soliciting support for programs
 Promoting transparency
 Supporting advocacy:-argument for the continuation,
adjustment, or termination. 458
 Principles of Monitoring
 Decision oriented and
 It should be systematic
 Its costs should be kept at bare minimum;
 Designed as a cyclic process beginning with a baseline
survey before commencement of a project;
 System should be evolved through consultations with
the potential users with a view to including their
information requirements

459
 Types of Monitoring
 Routine
 Compiling information on a regular, ongoing basis
for a core set of indicators
 Identify areas of discrepancy during
implementation
 Short-term
 Done for a limited period of time and usually for
specific activity or purpose e.g. after identification
of a problem, new activity

460
 Uses of Monitoring
 Help make decisions and recommendations about
future directions
 Identify the strengths and weaknesses of a project
 Feed data back to support programs and policies
 Assess and determine stakeholder and target group
satisfaction
 Determine whether the project is meeting its
objectives
 Meet demands for accountability to funding bodies
 Develop the skills and understanding of people
involved in a project
 Promote a project to the wider community.
461
 Means (Tools) used in Monitoring
 Work plans
 Field/Mission visits
 Periodic reporting
 Regular Meeting by Stakeholders

462
 Challenges Faced in Monitoring
 Organizational
 Absence of separate monitoring unit,
 Existence of weak unit, lack of coordination
 Financial
 Inadequate financial resources and/or liquidity
etc.)
 Staff and training
 Lack of adequate trained/qualified staff, transfer
of experienced staff.
 Information (frequency of flows, content, quality)
 Intangible elements (conceptual, attitudinal etc.)
 Delays (procedures, sanctions, late action
463
 Types of Evaluation
Formative (Ex-ante Evaluation)
 Initial assessment of the target populations and contextual
environment. Determines concept and design
Process (On-going Evaluation)
 Seeks to identify the extent to which planned activities have
been achieved and assesses the quality of the
activities/services
Outcome
 Examines specific program outcomes and accomplishments.
What changes were observed, what does it mean, and if
changes are a result of the interventions?
Impact (Ex-Post Evaluation)
 Gauges the program’s overall impact and effectiveness. Aims
to strengthen design and replication of effective programs
and strategies 464
 Mid term evaluation: done at the middle of a project
implementation
 End term/summative evaluation: evaluation done at
the end of the project.

465
 Evaluation Challenges
 What to evaluate;
 When to evaluate;
 What data are needed;
 Who should do the evaluation;
 How to disseminate the findings

466
 Importance of Evaluation
 Checks if the objectives are being achieved
 Improves planning and management
 Strengthens programmes
 Promotes institutional learning and informs policy
 Helps in accounting to the people receiving the
service

467
 How do we Monitor and Evaluate – Methods
 Routine supervision or visits
 Spot checks
 Baseline surveys
 Annual Reviews
 Mid term Evaluation
 End term/Final Evaluation

468
 Monitoring & Evaluation tools
 There is no standard definition of a M&E framework,
or how it differs from an M&E plan.
 For many organizations an M&E framework is a table
that describes the indicators that are used to measure
weather the project is a success.
 The M&E framework then becomes one part of the
M&E plan, which describes how the whole M&E system
for the program works, including things like, who is
responsible, what forms and tools will be used, data
flows through the organization.

469
 Monitoring an evaluation tools are thus:- activity/
project / program specific designed formats for
evaluating the project, and may include;
 Various reporting tools
 Minutes taken during meetings with stakeholders
 Photos taken while undertaking the project
 Questionnaires filled by key informants
 Surveys undertaken during implementation etc.
They can further be broken into:-
 Outcome M&E tools
 Output M&E tools
 Impact M&E tools
 Process M&E tools
470
 Template of an M&E framework
Indicat Definit Baselin Target Data Freque Respon Remar
or ion e source ncy sible ks
person
Goal 100% All 60% 100% Immuni Monthl Scphn
immuni illegibl zation y
zation e registe
covera childre r
ge n
immuni
zed
Outco %Of
mes childre
n
immuni
zed
Output No of
s childre
n
immuni
zed
471
 INDICATORS
 Indicators are signs that show changes in certain
conditions
 An indicator is anything or variable that measures
performance or change. Indicators are variables that
help to measure changes directly or indirectly (WHO,
1981)
 They are eye openers, markers, units of measure,
descriptors, reducers
 Five types: Input, Process, output, outcome and
impact

472
 A performance indicator (s) is a set of quantifiable
measures that an organization uses to gauge or
compare performance in terms of meeting their
strategic goals and or objectives
 These metrics are used to determine a company's
progress in achieving its strategic and operational
goals.
 Can be seen as an organization key success indicators.
 A performance target is the specific, planned level of
result to be achieved within an explicit time-frame
with a given level of resources. For example to
increase the level of immunization from the current
65% to 70%.
 Note: indicators are signpost to target achievement 473
 Selecting Indicators
The “CREAM” of Good Performance
A good performance indicator must be:
 Clear: (Precise and unambiguous)
 Relevant: (Appropriate to subject at hand)
 Economic: (Available at reasonable cost)
 Adequate: (Must provide a sufficient basis to assess
performance)
 Monitorable: (Must be amenable to independent
validation)

474
 Uses of indicators
 If measured sequentially over time, an indicator can
show the direction and speed of change and may be
useful in comparing among different areas or groups.
 An indicator can illustrate to the people concerned
whether they are making any progress towards
reaching a targeted level of health in their
circumstances.
 Indicators are also used to motivate people to act and
put pressure on policy makers to make changes in
policies and strategies.
 Can be used to foster a more equitable distribution of
health resources among and within countries e.g. use
of IMR and UMR 475
 Terms of reference
 A document which describes the purpose and structure of
the project and the approach towards implementation.
 Its sets out the boundaries, of which both the contractor
and the owner defines their engagement.
Examples
 The population to be covered.
 What is the geographical area involved?
 What are the scope of works?
 How will payments be made? E.g. by project phase or
end week
 What is the time scale for the project?
 What are the time frames?
 Conflict resolution mechanisms
476
Performance standard
 A performance standard is a management-approved
expression of the performance threshold(s),
requirement(s), or expectation(s) that must be met to
be appraised at a particular level of performance.

477
 Frameworks used in Monitoring and Evaluation
What are frameworks?
 Models, pictures or maps
 Visualize the factors that drive an intervention
 Maps that illustrate how a program should work

Frameworks
1. Conceptual Frameworks
3. Logic Models
2. Results Frameworks

478
 Logic Models
 Diagrams that identify and illustrate the linear
relationships flowing from program inputs, processes,
outputs, and outcomes
Purposes:
 Provides a streamlined interpretation of planned use
of resources and desired ends
 Clarifies project/program assumptions about linear
relationships between key factors relevant to desired
ends

479
Example of a Logic Model

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT OUTCOME IMPACT

Develop Conduct Practitioners Increase in Declining

clinical training trained in new clients served morbidity
training events clinical by (newly) levels in target
curriculum techniques trained population
providers

480
Results Framework:
 Results frameworks are diagrams that identify steps, or
levels, of results, and illustrate the causal relationships
linking all levels of a program’s objectives.
 A presentation of a whole view of a program including—
 The big goal
 Our ideas about the things that have to be in place to
achieve success.
 Other terms used: Strategic frameworks
 Focus on the END result(s) and the strategies that we can
use to achieve them
 Identifies the logic and links behind programs and to
identify necessary and sufficient elements for success

481
Elements of Results Frameworks
 Goal Statement— the change in health conditions
that we hope to achieve
 Strategic (or Key) Objective (SO)—the main result
that will help us achieve our goal and for which we
can measure change
 (Intermediate) Results (IRs)—the things that need to
be in place to ensure achievement of the SO
 Strategies & Activities —what a project does to
achieve its intermediate results that contribute to the
objective

482
Example of a Results Framework Application

Donor/USAID Reproductive Health Program

SO1: Increased Utilization of Family Planning/Reproductive Health Services

IR1 Strengthened sustainability IR2 Expansion of high quality FP/RH

of FP/RH Program services in the public and private sectors

IR1.1 Improved policy IR2.1 Increased availability of

environment for the provision postpartum and postabortion FP services
of FP/RH services in the public
and private sectors IR2.2 Increased accurate knowledge
of clients about modern methods
and FP services
IR1.2 Strengthened NGO
advocacy for FP program
IR2.3 Improved job performance of
health providers, trainers, and administrators
Source: USAID/Turkey Performance Monitoring Plan, 1998-2001
Conceptual Frameworks:
 Conceptual, or “research”, frameworks (models) are
diagrams that identify and illustrate the relationships
among systemic, organizational, individual, or other
salient factors that may influence program/project
operation and the successful achievement of program or
project goals.
Role of Conceptual Frameworks
 Derive program Goals,
 Known or expected relationships among program and
environmental factors that may affect the effectiveness
of the activities or the outcome of the intervention
 Development of operational plans
 Clarifying the program’s Assumptions
484
 Example of HIV/AIDS conceptual Framework

Underlying Proximate Biological Health Demographic

determinants determinants determinants outcome outcome

New Partner
C Rate of Contact
acquisition of susceptible
Mixing patterns to infected
Context Concurrency
Abstinence
persons

Socio- HIV
economic incidence
Condom use
Socio-cultural Concurrent STI B Efficiency of
Risky sexual transmission
Intervention
Mortality
practices per contact
programmes Chemotherapy
VCT
STD control
Condom STI
promotion incidence
IEC
D Duration of
Treatment with
infectivity
ARV, Treatment
of opportunistic
infections

Source: Boerma, and Weir 2005.

 REPORT
 Report: an account/statement describing in detail an
event or situation
 Formal communication – oral (speeches and other
oral presentations) or written for a specific purpose.
 Written document in which a given problem (issue,
event or finding) that has happened in an organisation
is examined for the purpose of conveying information,
reporting findings, putting forward ideas, or
recommendations

486
 Report Format
 Title  Summary and
 Table of contents conclusion
 Acknowledgements
 Recommendations
 Executive summary
 List of references
(where applicable)
 Introduction
 Appendices
 Goals & objectives
 Body of the report or
major issues

487
 Characteristics of a Report

Pre-defined
structure

Unbiased
and Independent
objective sections
conclusions

488
 Types of Reports
 Special Reports

Organisational Policies & Procedures

Research Studies,
Feasibility, Evaluation,
Market Research,
Recommendation
Investigative Reports

Proposals & Technical

Business background/ Compliance
Plans Specifications reports

489
 Routine Reports - Can be on:

Progress – Finance, HR,

Training, etc

Project – Feasibility,
Workshop. Monitoring and
Seminar, Course Evaluation ,
Completion

Field Trip Meeting

490
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

491
.

492
END

493
THANKS

494