MEMORY

Memory 1
After studying this topic, you should be
able to answer:
– What is memory? How are memories formed?

– Can memories be classified? What are the

different kinds of memories?
– Why do we forget? What are the processes of
forgetting?

– Role of neurons in preserving memory.

– Is it possible to improve memory?

Memory 2
Definition
Memory is the ability to store information so that it
can be used at a later time.
Forming Memories
Memory is built on three basic processes:
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval

Memory 3
Memory is built on 3 basic processes, analogous to a computer’s information
processing system.
 Stages of
Memory
Encoding refers to the process by
which information initially is recorded Encoding
in a form useable to memory.

Storage is the process by which a

system maintains or remembers Storag
information. e

Retrieval is the process by which

material in memory storage is located Retrieva
and brought into awareness. l
Memory 5
Retrieval:
Recall or retrieval of memory refers to the
subsequent re-accessing of events or information
from the past, which has been encoded and
stored in the brain—commonly known as
remembering.
ATTENTION is the only means that helps transfer
the information to shift to the next level of the
memory system.
 Memory storehouse: How does
memory store information?

Information must travel through three

different memory storage systems if it is to be
remembered:

A. Sensory memory
B. Short - term memory
C. Long - term memory
Memory 7
 The three systems of memory:
Memory storehouse

Information must travel through three

different memory storage systems if it is to be
remembered:

A. Sensory memory
B. Short - term memory
C. Long - term memory
Memory 7
 Sensory Memory
Initial, momentary storage of information.
It is the temporary register of all the
information the senses take in.

Duration
• Up to 1 second (visual)
• Up to 2 or 3 seconds (auditory)
Capacity
Large (theoretically all we sense)
Memory 8
Types
: Iconic memory
1.
2. Echoic memory

• Iconic memory stores visual information

coming from the eyes.

• Echoic memory stores auditory information

coming from the ears.

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 How is the precision of sensory
memory?
 High.
 It can store an almost exact replica of each
stimulus to which it is exposed.

Memory 10
 Short-term memory (STM)
Information first has meaning in STM.

STM can hold only the limited number

of items being worked with a particular
time.

Memory 11
Short-term memory or "active memory" is the
storage part for holding information in an active,
readily available state for a short period.

For example, short-term memory can be used to

remember a phone number that has just been
recited. It automatically holds information for 15 to
25 seconds without applying any rehearsal.
The capacity of STM is 7 (=/-) 2. In STM, new
memories get rehearsed by focusing on them and
passed on to LTM or fade away (if not appropriately
rehearsed).

It is where the information is given proper meaning

by using rehearsal and paying attention. Thus, this
is called the working memory.
 Example of STM’s working

List 1: UFTMSIAVBIBM
List 2: MTV FBI USA IBM

List 2 is more accessible to recall because it

contains fewer
chunks.
A meaningful grouping of stimuli that can
be stored as a unit in short-term memory.
Memory 13
 Rehearsal
Rehearsal is the technique to help short-term
memory store thoughts and ideas and pass them to
long-term memory.
1. Elaborative rehearsal
2. Maintenance rehearsal:
If we repeat (Maintenance rehearsal)
information in STM over and over, it will remain
there indefinitely.
Without maintenance rehearsal
remains information in STM for only
about 15 to 25
seconds.

Memory 14
Information goes to LTM from STM through the
processes of elaborative rehearsal.

– Information is expanded to make it fit

into a logical framework
– Linking the information to another memory
– Turning it into image
– Transforming it in some other way

Memory 15
What can reduce the effectiveness
of working memory?

STRESS

Memory 23
Memory 81
 Long-term memory (LTM)

Everything we store for future reference is encoded

into long term memory.

Capacity: quite large

Memory
Duration: Perhaps a lifetime

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Memory 29
 Divisions in long–term memory
A. Declarative memory
Memory for factual information: names, faces,
dates and the like. Example: a bike has two wheels.

Types:
I. Semantic
II. Episodic

25
i) Semantic memory.

Memory for general knowledge and facts about the

world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that
are used to deduce other facts.

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ii) Episodic memory.

Memory for biographical details of our

the individual
lives.

Memory 27
B. Procedural memory / Nondeclarative memory

Memory for skills, and habits, such as riding a bike

or playing football. It is the memory of how to do
things.

Memory 28
Based on research it is speculated that there are two
forms of memory:

1. Explicit memory
Explicit memory is the or conscious
intentional recollection of
Information.

Memory 34
2. Implicit memory
Memories of which people are not consciously
aware, but which can affect subsequent
performance and behavior.

Memory 37
Forgetting: When
memory fails
• Why do we forget information?

Memory 47
 Why We Forget

1. Encoding failure
Memories cannot be recalled because they
were never stored to begin with.

Memory 50
2. Decay theory
• Biology base theory
• When new memory is formed, it creates a
memory trace.
– a change in brain structure or
chemistry

Memory 51
• If unused, normal brain metabolic
processes erode memory trace.
• Theory not widely favored today.

Memory 52
3. Cue Dependent Forgetting
• Type of retrieval failure: the information
is stored in LTM but can not be
accessed.
• Forgetting is due to lack of cues.
• Two types of cues:
– Cues which are linked
meaningfully to the information to
be remembered.
– Cues which are not linked
meaningfully to the information to be
Memory 53
This theory proposes that when we learn
information we also encode the context
(external cues) in which we learn
information and mental state we are in
(internal cues). These can act as cue to
recall.

Memory 78
4. Interference theory
Other memories interfere with the memory we
are trying to recall.
Interferences are two types:
a. Proactive interference
Proactive interference occurs old
when
information interferes with recalling new
information.

Memory 79
b. Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference when new
information occurs interferes recall of old
with the
information.

Memory 80
Role of neurons in preserving
memory
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