The Nature of Physics

• Physics is an
experimental science in
which physicists seek
patterns that relate the
phenomena of nature.
• The patterns are called
physical theories.
• A very well established or
widely used theory is
called a physical law or
principle.
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Solving Problems in Physics
• All of the Problem-Solving Strategies and Examples in
this book will follow these four steps:
• Identify the relevant concepts, target variables, and
known quantities, as stated or implied in the problem.
• Set Up the problem: Choose the equations that you’ll use
to solve the problem, and draw a sketch of the situation.
• Execute the solution: This is where you “do the math.”
• Evaluate your answer: Compare your answer with your
estimates, and reconsider things if there’s a discrepancy.

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Idealized Models
To simplify the analysis of
a) a baseball in flight, we
use
b) an idealized model.

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Standards and Units
• Length, time, and mass are three fundamental
quantities of physics.
• The International System (SI for Système
International) is the most widely used system of units.
• In SI units, length is measured in meters, time in
seconds, and mass in kilograms.

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Unit Prefixes
• Prefixes can be used to create larger and smaller
units for the fundamental quantities. Some examples
are:
• 1 m  10 6 m (size of some bacteria and living cells)
• 1 km  103 m (a 10-minute walk)
• 1 mg  106 kg (mass of a grain of salt)
• 1 g  10 3 kg (mass of a paper clip)
• 1 ns  10 9 s (time for light to travel 0.3 m)

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Unit Consistency and Conversions
• An equation must be dimensionally consistent. Terms to
be added or equated must always have the same units.
(Be sure you’re adding “apples to apples.”)
• Always carry units through calculations.
• Convert to standard units as necessary, by forming a ratio
of the same physical quantity in two different units, and
using it as a multiplier.
• For example, to find the number of seconds in 3 min, we
write:
 60 s 
3 min  (3 min )    180 s
 1 min 
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Uncertainty and Significant Figures
• The uncertainty of a measured quantity is
indicated by its number of significant figures.
• For multiplication and division, the answer can
have no more significant figures than the
smallest number of significant figures in the
factors.
• For addition and subtraction, the number of
significant figures is determined by the term
having the fewest digits to the right of the
decimal point.
• As this train mishap illustrates, even a small
percent error can have spectacular results!

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 1.3

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Vectors and Scalars
• A scalar quantity can be described by a single
number.
• A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a
direction in space.
• In this book, a vector quantity is represented
 in
boldface italic type with an arrow over it: A .
 
• The magnitude of A is written as A or A .

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Drawing Vectors
• Draw a vector as a line with an arrowhead at its tip.
• The length of the line shows the vector’s magnitude.
• The direction of the line shows the vector’s direction.

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Adding Two Vectors Graphically (1 of 3)

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Adding Two Vectors Graphically (2 of 3)

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Adding Two Vectors Graphically (3 of 3)

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Adding More Than Two Vectors
Graphically (1 of 3)
• To add several vectors, use the head-to-tail method.
• The vectors can be added in any order.

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Adding More Than Two Vectors
Graphically (2 of 3)
• To add several vectors, use the head-to-tail method.
• The vectors can be added in any order.

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Adding More Than Two Vectors
Graphically (3 of 3)
• To add several vectors, use the head-to-tail method.
• The vectors can be added in any order.

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Subtracting Vectors

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Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
• Ifc is a scalar, the product
c A has magnitude c A.

• The figure illustrates

multiplication of a vector
by
a) a positive scalar and
b) a negative scalar.

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Addition of Two Vectors at Right
Angles
• To add two vectors that are
at right angles, first add the
vectors graphically.
• Then use trigonometry to
find the magnitude and
direction of the sum.
• In the figure, a cross-country
skier ends up 2.24 km from
her starting point, in a
direction of 63.4 degrees
east of north.

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Components of a Vector
• Adding vectors graphically provides limited accuracy.
Vector components provide a general method for adding
vectors.
• Any vector can be represented by an x-component Ax and
a y-component Ay.

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Positive and Negative Components
• The components of a vector may be positive or
negative numbers, as shown in the figures.

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Finding Components
• We can calculate the components of a vector from its
magnitude and direction.

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 1.6

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Calculations Using Components
• We can use the components of a vector to find its
A
magnitude and direction: A  Ax 2  Ay 2 and tan  y
Ax
• We can use the components of a
set of vectors to find the
components of their sum:
Rx  Ax  Bx  Cx  ..., Ry  Ay  By  Cy  ...

• Refer to Problem-Solving
Strategy 1.3.

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Unit Vectors
• A unit vector has a
magnitude of 1 with no
units.
• The unit vector iˆ
ĵ points in thein
points
+y-direction, and k̂ points in
the +x-direction,
the +z-direction.
• Any vector can be
expressed in terms of its
components as

A  Ax iˆ  Ay jˆ  Az kˆ.
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The Scalar Product (1 of 2)

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The Scalar Product (2 of 2)
• The scalar product can
be positive, negative, or
zero, dependingon the
angle between A and B.

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Calculating a Scalar Product Using
Components
• In terms of components:

• The scalar product of two vectors is the sum of the

products of their respective components.

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Finding an Angle Using the Scalar
Product
• Example 1.10 shows how to use components to find
the angle between two vectors.

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The Vector Product
If thevector product (“cross product”) of two vectors is
C  A  B then:

The direction of the vector product can be found using the

right-hand rule:

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The Vector Product is Anticommutative

A  B  B  A

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Calculating the Vector Product
• Use ABsin to find the magnitude and the right-hand
rule to find the direction.
• Refer to Example 1.11.

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 1.11

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