MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES

v.sudheer
Assistant Professor,
Department of ECE
Narayana Engineering College, Nellore
 INTRODUCTION
• Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose
frequency range from 1GHZ to 1000GHZ
• Microwaves are so called since they are
defined in terms of their wavelength.
 Metric prefixes
PREFIX POWER OF 10 PREFIX POWER OF 10
KILO 103 milli 10-3
MEGA 106 micro 10-6
nano 10-9
GIGA 109
pico 10-12
femto 10-15
TERA 10 12

atto 10-18
PETA 1015

EXA 1018
MWE BAND DESIGNATIONS BY IEEE
BAND DESIGNATION FREQUENCY RANGE(GHZ)
UHF 0.3-3
L 1.1-1.7
LS 1.7-2.6
S 2.6-3.9
C 3.9-8.0
X 8.0-12.5
KU 12.5-18.0
K 18-26
KA 26-40
 US MICRO WAVE FREQUENCY BANDS
BAND DESIGNATION FREQUENCY RANGE IN GHZ
A 0.1-0.25
B 0.25-0.5
C 0.5-1
D 1-2
E 2-3
F 3-4
G 4-6
H 6-8
I 8-10
J 10-20
K 20-40
L 40-60
M 60-100
N 100-140
 PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS AND
APPLICTIONS OF VARIOUS BANDS
BAND FREQUENCY WAVE PROPOGATION APPLICATIONS
RANGE LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

ELF 30HZ-300HZ 10-1Mm PENETRATION INTO EARTH COMMUNICATION WITH

AND SEA. SUBMARINES.
VERY LOW

VLF 3KHZ-30KHZ 100- SURFACE WAVE UPTO LONG DISTANCE POINT TO

10Km 1000Km POINT COMMUNICATION.
SKY WAVE IN THE NIGHT
LOW ATEENUATION BOTH
DAY AND NIGHT

LF 30KHZ-300KHZ 10-1Km SURFACE WAVE AND SKY POINT TO POINT MARINE

WAVE IN THE NIGHT. COMMUNICATION.
TSFB
BAND FREQUENCY WAVE PROPAGATION APPLICATIONS
RANGE LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

MF 300KHZ- 1000- GROUND WAVE DURING MARINE COMMUNICATIONS

3MHZ 100m DAY &SKY WAVE IN BROAD CASTING
NIGHT.
ATTENUATION IS HIGH IN
DAY TIME & LOW IN
NIGHT TIME
HF 3MHZ- 100-10m REFLECTION FROM MODERATE AND LONG
30MHZ IONOSPHERE DISTANCE
VARIES AS PER TIME DAY COMMUNICATIONS FOR ALL
QUALITY GENERALLY
POOR
VHF 30MHZ- 10-1m SPACE WAVE LINEOF TELEVISION FM SERVICE
300MHZ SIGHT AVIATION
POLICE

UHF 300MHZ- 100- SAME AS VHF SHORT DISTANCE

3GHZ 10cm AFFECTED BY TALL COMMUNICATIONS LIKE
OBJECTS LIKE HILLS RADAR SYSTEMS
BAND FREQUENCY WAVE PROPAGATION APPLICATIONS
RANGE LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

SHF 3GHZ- 10-1cm SUFFERS ATMOSPHERE RADAR

30GHZ ATTENUATION ABOVE MICRO WAVE & SPACE
10GHZ COMMUNICATIONS
SAME AS VHF,UHF

EHF 30GHZ- 10-1mm SAME AS ABOVE(SHF) SAME AS ABOVE (SHF)

300GHZ
 ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES
• Increased bandwidth availability
• Improved directive properties
• Fading effect & reliability
• Power requirements
• Transparency property of micro wave
 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES
• Tele communications
• RADARS
• Commercial and industrial applications
• Biomedical applications
• Electronic warfare
 TEM/TE/TM/HE WAVE DEFINATIONS
• The electric field and magnetic field
components are mutually perpendicular to
the direction of propagation as shown in
figure
• Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Wave: In TEM mode,
both electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to
the direction of propagation and consequently have no
components in Z direction. i.e Ez=Hz=0
• Transverse Electric (TE) Wave: In TE wave, only the
electric field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation and magnetic field is not purely transverse.
i.e Ez=0, Hz≠0.
• Transverse Magnetic(TM) Wave: In TM wave, only the
magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation and electric field is not purely transverse. i.e
Ez ≠0,Hz =0
 WAVE GUIDES
• A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross
section for transmitting EM waves by
successive reflections from the inner walls of
the tube is called a WAVE GUIDE.
• Any shape of cross section of wave guide can
support EM waves, since irregular shapes are
difficult to analyze and rarely are used so most
commonly we use rectangular and circular
wave guides are mostly used.
WAVE GUIDES
PROPAGATION OF WAVES IN RWG
Power transmission in rectangular waveguides:

Introduction :-

The power transmitted through a waveguide and the power loss in the guide
walls can be calculated by means of the complex Poynting theorem .

Power transmission : -

It is assumed that the guide is terminated in such a way that there is no

reflection from the receiving end or that the guide is infinitely long compared
with the wavelength. From the Poynting theorem ,the power transmitted
through a guide is given by

For a lossless dielectric, the time-average power flow through a rectangular

guide is given by :
For TEmnmodes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide
is given by :

For TMmn modes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular

waveguide is given by :
Where is the intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric.
Power losses in Rectangular Waveguide

There are two types of power losses in a rectangular

waveguide:
1. Losses in the dielectric
2. Losses in the guide walls
First we shall consider power losses caused by
dielectric attenuation. In a low-loss dielectric (that is,
(σ<<με), the propagation constant for a plane wave
traveling in an unbounded lossy dielectric is given by
The attenuation caused by the low-loss dielectric in the
rectangular waveguide for the TEmn or TMmn modes is given by

As f>>fc , the attenuation constant in the guide approaches that

for the unbounded dielectric. However, if the operating
frequency is way below the cutoff frequency, f<<fc the
attenuation constant becomes very large and non-propagation
occurs.
Now we shall consider power losses caused by the guide
walls. When the electric and magnetic intensities propagate
through a lossy waveguide, their magnitudes may be written :
where Eoz and Hoz are the field intensities at z = O. It is
interesting to note that, for a low-loss guide, the time-average
power flow decreases proportionally to e - 2αgz .
Hence :
Microstrip lines
Microstrip is a type of
electrical transmission line
which can be fabricated  , , d w h
with any technology where
a conductor is separated Note: Pozar uses (W, d)
from a ground plane by a
dielectric layer known as
the substrate.
Microstriplines are used to
convey microwave-
frequency signals.

24
 Microstrip (cont.)

Part of the field lines are in air,

and part of the field lines are inside the substrate.

Figure from Pozar book

The flux lines get more concentrated in the substrate

region as the frequency increases.

25
Advantages:

• Fabrication Cost is low, because the total

pattern is carried on a signal dielectric
substrate.
•The packaged & unpackaged semiconductor
chips, both can be conveniently attached to the
microstrip element.
•There is scope for minor adjustments, even
after completion of fabrication process.
Characteristic Impedance of Microstrip Lines

•Microstrip lines are used extensively to interconnect high-

speed logic circuits in digital computers because they can be
fabricated by automated techniques and they provide the
required uniform signal paths.
• Figure 11-1-1 shows cross sections of a microstrip line and
a wire-over-ground line for purposes of comparison.
The well-known
equation of the characteristic impedance of a wire-over-
ground transmission line, as shown in Fig. 11-1-1 (b), is given
by

Where
Er = dielectric constant of the ambient medium
h = the height from the center of the wire to the ground plane
d = diameter of the wire
The empirical equation for effective dielectric constant of a
microstrip line was discovered by Digiacoma and his co-
workers. Which is given by

Transformation of a rectangular conductor into an quivalent

circular conductor. The cross-section of a microstrip line is
rectangular, so the rectangular conductor must be
transformed into an equivalent circular conductor. Springfield
discovered an empirical equation for the transformation. His
equation is
where
d = diameter of the wire over ground
w = width of the microstrip line
t = thickness of the microstrip line

The limitation of the ratio of thickness to width is

between 0.1 and 0.8
The quality factor Q of a microstrip line is very high, but it is
limited by the radiation losses of the substrates and with low
dielectric constant. Recall that for uniform current
distribution in the microstrip line, the ohmic attenuation
constant of a wide microstrip line is given by

Characteristics Impedance of microstrip line is

A quality factor Qd is related to the dielectric attenuation constant
 Microstrip (cont.)
Attenuation

Dielectric loss: “filling factor”

k0  r    reff  1 
d  tan   effr 
2   r  r  1 

 reff  1: d  0
Conductor loss: k0  r
 eff
r  r : d  tan 
2
Rs Rs
c  
Z 0 w h
very crude (“parallel-plate”)
 h  approximation
Z
 0   (More accurate formulas are given later.)
 w
34
 Microwave Cavity
• In general, a cavity resonator is a metallic enclosure
that confines the electromagnetic energy. The stored
electric and magnetic energies inside the cavity
determine its equivalent inductance and capacitance.
• The energy dissipated by the finite conductivity of
the cavity walls determines its equivalent
resistance.
• In practice,
1. The rectangular-cavity resonator,
2. Circular-cavity resonator,
3. And reentrant-cavity resonator
Are commonly used in many microwave
applications. 35
• Theoretically a given resonator has an infinite number
of resonant modes, and each mode corresponds to a
definite resonant frequency.
• The mode having the lowest resonant frequency is
known as the
dominant mode.

36
 Rectangular cavity
• A microwave cavity acts similarly to a resonant circuit with
extremely low loss at its frequency of operation, resulting in
quality factors (Q factors) up to the order of 106, compared
to 102 for circuits made with separate inductors and
capacitors at the same frequency.

Rectangular cavity
37
 • The wave equations in the rectangular resonator
should satisfy the boundary condition of the
zero tangential E at four of the walls.
• These functions can be found as

Where

𝑚 = 0,1,2,3, … represents the number of the

half-
wave periodicity in the x direction

n = 0,1,2,3, … represents the number of the

half- wave periodicity in the y direction

p = 1,2,3, … represents the number of the

half- wave periodicity in the z direction 38
And

where m = 1, 2, 3, 4,
…
n = I, 2, 3, 4, ...
p = 0, I, 2, 3, …

The separation equation for both TE and TM

modes is given by 𝑚 𝜋2 𝑝 2
2
𝑘 +
𝑎 2 𝑏 𝜋
= 𝑛𝜋
𝑑
+
For a lossless dielectric, 𝑘𝑐= 𝜔2𝜇𝜖 therefore, the resonant
frequency is expressed by 2 2
1 � � �
𝑓�
2 � + �2 � (𝑇𝐸𝑚𝑛𝑝, 𝑇𝑀𝑚𝑛𝑝)
=� 𝜇𝜖 𝑎 � + �
for 𝑎 > 𝑏 < 𝑑 the dominant mode is�the �
𝑇𝐸101 mode
39
 Figure shows the methods of excitation for the
rectangular resonator.

Methods of exciting wave modes in a

resonator.

The maximum amplitude of the standing wave

occurs when the frequency of the impressed signal
is equal to the resonant frequency.
40
 Cylindrical cavity
• A circular-cavity resonator is a circular waveguide with
two ends closed by a metal wall.
• The field solutions of a cylindrical cavity of length L and
radius R follow from the solutions of a cylindrical
waveguide with additional electric boundary conditions at
the position of the enclosing plates.

Cylindrical
cavity 41
The wave function in the circular resonator should
satisfy Maxwell's equations, subject to the same
boundary conditions described for a rectangular-cavity
resonator.

• Substitution of 𝑘𝑐= 𝜔2𝜇𝜖 yields the resonant frequencies for

TE and TM modes, respectively, as
2 2
𝑓� 1 𝑛𝜒′
+
2𝜋 𝜇𝜖 𝑝
𝑎
=� 𝑞𝜋
𝑏
• It is interesting to note that the 𝑇𝑀110 mode is dominant
where 2a > d, and that the 𝑇𝐸111 mode is dominant when 𝑑
≥ 2𝑎. 42
Microwave resonant cavities can be represented and thought of as simple
LC circuits.For a microwave cavity, the stored electric energy is
equal to the stored magnetic energy at resonance as is the case for a
resonant LC circuit

LC circuit equivalent for microwave resonant cavity

43
 Q Factor of a Cavity Resonator
• The quality factor Q is a measure of the requency
selectivity of a resonant or antiresonant circuit,
and it is defined as
maximum energy stored/
energy dissipated per
cycle

𝑄 = 2𝜋

Q= wW/p
• At resonant frequency, the electric and magnetic energies are
equal and in time quadrature. The total energy stored in the
resonator is obtained by integrating the energy density over
• the volume
Where E and Hofarethe
theresonator:
peak values of the field intensities. 44
 Cont’d
• The average power loss in the resonator can
be evaluated by integrating the power
density as given

• So

• Since the peak value of the magnetic

intensity is related to its tangential and
normal components by

45
 Cont’d
• where 𝐻𝑛 is the peak value of the normal magnetic
intensity, the value of 𝐻𝑛 2 at the resonator
walls is approximately twice the value of
𝐻 2 averaged over the volume.
• So the Q of a cavity resonator

• An unloaded resonator can be represented by either

a series or a parallel resonant circuit. The resonant
frequency and the unloaded 𝐻𝑛 of a cavity
resonator are

46
 Cont’d
• If the cavity is coupled by means of an ideal N: 1
transformer and a series inductance 𝐿𝑠to a generator
having internal impedance 𝑍𝑔, then the coupling
circuit and its equivalent are as shown

Coupling Equivalent
circuit. circuit.
47
 Cont’d
• The loaded 𝑄𝑒of the system
is given by

• The coupling coefficient of the system

is defined as

• And the loaded 𝑄𝑒would

become

48
 Cont’d

• There are three types of coupling

coefficients:
1. Critical coupling:
If the resonator is matched to the
generator, then
𝐾= 1
 2. Overcoupling: If K > 1
• The cavity terminals are at a voltage maximum in
the input line at resonance. The normalized
impedance at the voltage maximum is the
standing-wave ratio 𝜌. That is
𝐾= 𝜌
The loaded 𝑄𝑙is given by
3. Undercoupling: If K < 1
The cavity terminals are at a voltage minimum and the
input terminal impedance is equal to the reciprocal of the
standing-wave ratio. That is 1
𝐾
�
=
The loaded 𝑄 is �
𝑙
given by 50
The relationship of the coupling coefficient K and
the standing-wave ratio is
shown in Fig.

51