Chapter Two

Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

 Foreign policy of a state is the actions, decisions and goals that states
pursue towards the outside world.

 It is shaped by both external/systemic factors and internal factors.

 Externally, International regimes, international organizations, the

prevalence of great powers at international level are some of
systemic factors that impinges on the foreign policy of a state.

 Internally, the economic, technological and military capabilities of

states heavily affect foreign policy.
 On top of these, the idiosyncrasy of leaders contributes much in
affecting the foreign policy making and implementation of a
country.

 In this manner, it is important to understand the deriving motives

behind foreign policy, viz., the pursuit of national interest.

 States adopt foreign policy to achieve and promote their national

interests often defined as the short term, medium term and long
term goals.

 To this end, states establish diplomatic relations and contacts and

use different tactics to protect, often to maximize, their national
interest.
 2.1. Defining National Interest
 NI refers to set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given
country would like to achieve in its international relations.
 It has been the main driving force that determines the contents of
foreign policy.
 NI is the reason of state (raison de`tat,), to justify its actions and
policy towards other states at international level.
 there are controversies on the exact meaning, scope and contents
of national interests.
A. K. Holsti says: “an image of the future state of affairs and future
set of conditions that governments aspire to achieve
Seabury defines in terms of Normative(set of purposes which a
nation…should seek) and descriptive sense(those purposes to be
pursued persistently over time)
For Plato, the good of the polis (that is the public good) could best be arrived at by
philosopher king aided by a few highly learned, detached and fair-minded advisors.

The basic assumptions of this thought include:

1.That wise and well informed decisions can be made by a few carefully selected
individuals who have been expressly trained to think in terms of the collective good
of the state;

2.That these few individuals, who possess awesome and unchecked power, will not
be corrupted by this power; and

3. That once socially optimal decisions have been made; they can be implemented
effectively by loyal, well trained, and obedient bureaucracies.

More often, Plato’s ideas have been used as the inspiration for dictatorial forms of
government.
Colmbis: has provided a multiplicity of criteria used in defining NI:
1. Operational Philosophy:
• There are two ways of operation in FPDM
a. Synoptic Orientation of Decision Making: act in a bold
sweeping fashion (upon taking office, introduce major new
practices, policies and institutions and discontinue others)
• The decision maker assumes that he/she has enough
information about an important issue to develop a major
policy with some confidence that its consequences can be
predicted or controlled.
b. Incremental Orientation of Decision Making: act in caution,
probing and experimental fashion, following the trial and error
approach
• Decision maker assumes that political and economic problems
are too complex to proceed with bold initiative without
worrying about their consequence.
• Thus, seeks to perfect existing legislations, policies, institutions
and practices
2. Ideological criteria
• NI may be shaped by underlying ideological orientations of the
regime in power.
• Ideology serves as a litmus paper for identifying friends or
enemies in IR as governments use ideological criteria to
establish their relations with other states. EG: Cold War period
3. Moral and Legal Criteria
• Sometimes states are expected to act morally (acting honestly and
making public decisions accordingly)
• Moral behavior in international politics involves:
• keeping your promise; living and letting others live; standing up for the
principles to which you are morally committed and that are widely
accepted in your culture
• Acting legally: abiding by the rules of international law to the
extent that such rules are identified and accepted.
• If there are lacunas/gaps, areas where no international regimes have
been developed, then you act in a general sprit of equity and justice.
4. Pragmatic Criteria
• Matter of fact is your orientation. You look at issues and events
around you and the world with sense of prudence (carefulness)
and with sort of rationality.
• Decisions are made based on scientific analysis of cost and benefit
or merit and demerit to your country's interest
• normative issues, issues involving judgment are not
considered while making FP decisions
5. Professional Advancement Criteria
• The FPd can be affected by the desire for one’s own personal
success; thus the NI might become the action of the decision
maker which he/she choses to promote his/her professional
survival and growth.
• The leaders (decision makers) might choose conformity to
either to popular pressure or to strong elites whose support
they consider indispensable for their political survival
6. Partisan Criteria:

• to equate the success of one's own political party/ethnic or racial

group/ a particular class with an entire nation's success.

• You may use bureaucratic criteria to prioritize the policy issues.

• The interest of your organization might be equated with the NI

7. Foreign Dependency Criteria:

 usually applies to less developing countries, who had fallen under the
yoke of colonialism, and now, even after political independence, kept
the colonial ties with their ex-masters intact.

 These countries are still dependent on their ex-colonial states for

technical aid, expertise and technology, sometimes even for their
security.
 Realists
- reject the ideological, legal and moral criteria
- prioritize pragmatic criteria (objectively defined in terms of
ensuring survival and security of a state)
- a rational diplomat is a prudent diplomat (balancing needs and
aspirations with others)
Idealists
• strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological and moral
elements
• the marriage of different criteria that include legal and moral
criteria, ideological criteria and prudence or pragmatism-practical
necessities on the ground.
• call for global solutions than local (national) solutions
 Defining foreign policy

 Foreign Policy is the plan of states for

dealing with other nations.

2.2. Understanding It is the set of priorities and percepts

Foreign Policy and established by national leaders to serve s
Foreign Policy guidelines for choosing among various
Behaviors courses of action in specific situations in
international affairs (Rochester).

It involves general purposes, priority of

goals to be realized and achieved. It also
encompasses specific strategies and
instruments, like diplomatic bargaining,
economic instruments, propaganda, terrorism
(sabotage), and use of force (war) etc. to
achieve their objectives.
 Core Interests and Values (Short-Range
Objectives)
• Are those kinds of goals for which most people are willing to
make ultimate sacrifices.
• Usually stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy
Foreign policy objectives and become article of faith that society accepts without any
questioning it.
Based on: • Related to the self preservation of political and economic
systems, the people and its culture, and the territorial
- The value placed on the integrity of a state.
objective,
Middle-Range Objectives
- The time element placed on • Aimed to meet economic betterment demands and needs
through international action.
its achievement, and
• Social welfare and economic development cannot be achieved
through self-help, states would have to interact with others.
- The kind of demands the •Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities, sources of
objective imposes on other supply, and foreign market are for most states necessary for
states: increasing social welfare.
Long-Range Objectives
• Are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate
political or ideological organization of the international
system, and rules governing relations in that system.
• In pursuing these objectives, states normally make universal
demands (no less than to reconstruct an entire international
system).
 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take
towards each other.
Arnold Wolfers suggested that all foreign policy behavior
ultimately boils down to three possible patterns:
Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);
USA (IMF,WB,WTO,UN)- The underlying philosophy of
such institutions, and even the decision-making procedures
Foreign Policy are all shaped to serve the global interests of USA.
Behavior: Self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s
Patterns & own favor); (China, India, Brazil, Germany)
Trends Compete to restructure the international institutions and
different regimes so as to create enabling environment to
promote their national interest.
Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some
else’s favor).
Reflects the foreign policy trends that are being displayed in
Less Developing Countries (LDC).
Weak states of the world which fail to defend and promote
their national interests in their external relations.
 Still to day countries such as Israel and the United States
pursue such policies called extra-territoriality.

 Extra-territoriality is when the national interest and

claims of a country is projected beyond the limit of its
geographic boundary.
 Dimensions of Foreign Policy
(Alignment, Scope and Mode of Operation)
1. Alignment
Alliances: a provision of mutual military assistance between two or
more sovereign states (NATO, Warsaw pact , SEATO, CENTO…)

Neutrality: is the condition of those states which, in time of

war, take no part in the fighting but continue pacific intercourse
with the waning states.

Nonalignment: Means keeping out of alliance by a state. It

implies freedom from a commitment to any power bloc.
The policy of not aligning with any bloc, but at the same time being friendly to
everyone, might be possible to exercise in international relations a moderating
influence named as non-alignment.
2. Scope
i. States defined their interest with countries in every region of
the world.

ii. States defined their national interest by interacting primarily

with neighboring states in the same geographical area

iii. States those follow Isolationism

Isolationism means little Participation in world affairs. It implies
a low level of involvement in Military, diplomatic and
commercial transactions with other states.
Refers to narrow FP scope of a country as a result of key weaknesses or
geographic remoteness. EG: Burma in 1960s and 70s
NB: most global actors have passed through period of relative isolationism and
of mainly regional interests, finally branching out into global concerns
States following this policy are usually self-sufficient in their economic and social
needs.
3. Mode of Operation

Multilateral approach
The more multilateralist a state is, the greater its tendency to
seek solutions to problems through diplomatic forums in which
several states participate.
Most Developing Countries, Germany and Scandinavians

Unilateral approach
Countries that have strong economic and military muscles they
would prefer this approach to settle problems.
They play the carrot and stick diplomacy to affect the outcomes
of events.
 Diplomatic instruments
-Negotiation, Alliances and Treaties, Propaganda

Instruments Economic instruments

of foreign -Tariff, Quota, Boycott, Embargo, Loans,
policy Credits and Currency Manipulations, Aid

Military tools: Coercive measures through:

-Military force, Deterrence
 Diplomacy
Diplomacy has probably existed for as long as civilization has.
 Diplomacy: a process between actors (diplomats, usually
representing a state) who exist within a system (international
relations) and engage in private and public dialogue (diplomacy)
to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner.
 Diplomacy is not foreign policy- part of foreign policy.
 In basic terms, a state’s foreign policy has two key ingredients; its
actions and its strategies for achieving its goals.
 The interaction one state has with another is considered the act of
its foreign policy.
 Diplomacy is a complex game of maneuver in which the goal is to
influence the behaviors of others in ones interest.
 In the past diplomacy had been practiced in formalistic and somewhat rigid
manner that was limited to the bilateral relations of countries as being
represented through the ambassadors hosted in foreign soil.

• The bargaining process and other diplomatic process, such as exchange of

ideas were the business of ambassadors, undertaken under closed and secret
manner.

 Nowadays the nature of diplomacy, its strategy of doing diplomacy has been
radically different from the old practices.

 After WWI and formation of the League of Nations, the old style of diplomacy
has been drastically reformed.

• There arose multilateral diplomacy, public diplomacy, leader-to-leader

(summitry diplomacy) in sharp contrast to secret diplomacy and bilateral
diplomacy.
 Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over priorities
b/n contestants through an exchange of proposals for mutually acceptable
solutions.

 There must be conflict over priority in order for bargaining to take place, for
if there is total agreement there would be nothing to bargain.

 Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to reach agreements, compromises,

and settlements where governments objectives conflict.

 Thus, like any foreign policy instruments, diplomatic bargaining also

espouses an element of power or influence.

In the modern international system also involves powerful actors that are not
states. These tend to be international non-governmental organizations
(INGOs)eg. Greenpeace, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and
international governmental organizations (IGOs)eg. UN & EU.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
some of the basic rules that diplomats have employed with greater effectiveness
over the years:
• Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability to achieve them
• Be careful about what you say: The experienced diplomats plans out and weighs
words carefully.
• Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations; finds common ground ends
them successfully. Almost any negotiation will involve some concession, so it is
important to maintain a degree of flexibility.
• Understand the other side: There are several aspects to understanding the other side.
One is to appreciate an opponent’s perspective even if you do not agree with it.
• Be patient: important to bide your time. Being overly anxious can lead to
concessions that are unwise and may convey weakness to an opponent.
• Leave avenues of retreat open: it is axiomatic that even a rat will fight if trapped in
a corner. The same is often true for countries. Call it honor, saving face, or prestige;
it is important to leave yourself and your opponent an “out”.
In general, states make considerable use of “carrot and stick” approaches such as
threats, punishment, promise, and rewards.
 Threats (hypothetical) and punishment (real action) = the “stick”
 Promise (hypothetical) and reward (real action) = “carrot” approach.
 B. Economic Instruments of FP

• Modern states are politically and technologically interdependent;

• they rely on each other for resources and commodities that enable them
to develop and sustain viable economies.
• No state is self-sufficient. There is a considerable degree of
dependence upon trade among states

• But this degree of dependence varies across states.

• some states are strong and capable as compared to others

• States often use their economic muscle to influence the behavior of

others; use economic instruments to achieve their FP objectives.
• Economic instruments include: tariffs, quotas, boycotts, embargos and
aid
Holisti claims that trade instruments in FP are normally used for 3
purposes:
I. to achieve any FP objective by exploiting need and
dependence, and offering economic rewards, or threat,
ending or imposing economic punishments
• While using rewards or economic punishments, 2 conditions
must be fulfilled:
a. the target of the influence or act must perceive that there is a
genuine need for the reward or for the avoidance of the
punishment
b. no alternative market or source of supply must be easily available
to the target

II. to increase a state’s capability or deprive a potential enemy’s

capabilities

III. to create economic satellites (guaranteed markets and resources

of supply) or help maintain political obedience in satellites by
1. Tariff:
• taxing foreign products coming in to a country for the
purpose of: revenue generation, protecting domestic
producers from foreign competition, or any other domestic
economic reasons.
• Tariffs can be used as an inducement or punishment
2. Quota:
• used to control imports of some commodities.
• Foreign suppliers are allowed to send their goods in to the
country at a favorable price, but are only allowed to sell a
certain amount in a given period of time
3. Boycott:
• this amounts to eliminating the import of either a specific
commodity or the total range of export products sold by the
country against which the boycott is organized
4. Embargo:
• this is when a government deprives another country of
good.
• When a government prohibits its own businessmen from
conducting transactions with commercial organizations
in the country against which the embargo is organized.
• It could be on specific category of goods or on the total
range of goods that private businesses normally send to
the country that is being punished
5. Loans, credits and currency manipulations:
• rewards: favorable tariff rates and quotas or granting
loans,
• manipulation of currency rates can also be used to create
more or less favorable terms of trade between countries.
6. Foreign Aid:

• transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from donor to recipient.

• The main type of aid includes: military aid, technical assistance, grants and
commodity import program and development loans
• Military Aid: this is the oldest type of aid.
• States give military aid with the objective of safeguarding their own security by
strengthening the military capabilities of allies

• Foreign aid: is often used for achieving political and economic objectives of the
donors
• it is not usually undertaken for solely humanitarian purposes.
• EG: India, Pakistan, Israel and Egypt are large recipients because of their strategic and
symbolic importance in world politics

• Not all aid policies and commitments have an immediate or exclusive

political and security objective. Some aid programs are also designed to
achieve remedy for suffering or solve some kind of economic catastrophe
 During Tewodros II (1855-1868)
Foreign Policy priority
Being recognized by western countries and

Overview of gaining assistant from them to modernize the

Foreign Policy of
country.
Ethiopia
Defending the country from external
enemies (Turkey, Egypt & Islam).
 During Yohannes IV (1872-1889)
Foreign Policy priority :
 Defending the country from the threat of Islam
and European expansionism.

During Menelik II (1889-93)

Foreign Policy priority
 Defending the country from colonialists there by
Overview of
sustaining its independence and maintaining
Foreign Policy territorial integrity of the country.
of Ethiopia
He followed Double Track Diplomacy:

 He entered many treaties and agreements to reverse

Italy’s expansion (e.g. wuchale).
 He prepared himself by accumulating military
ammunitions to defend the aggression from any side
of colonial powers.
 Foreign Policy priority
 Gaining Unquestioned respect by the international community as a
sovereign state.
During the war of liberation (1936-1941):
 Seeking effective diplomacy to find a powerful external patron to restore the
countries independence. (secured the aid of the British )
In the immediate post-war period (after 1941):
 Seeking alternative relationships that would allow him to loosen
Ethiopia’s tie with Britain. (secured diplomatic relationship with
During American)
After stablishing new patronage links with United States:
Emperor Haile  Federating Eritrea with Ethiopia. (a UN resolution made in 1952).
Selassie I  Strengthening the state’s military capacity. (Two agreements were
concluded in 1953 to formalize their r/ship).
(1916-1974) -Military aid for the next 23 years since the agreement reached. (By 1975,
the total U.S. military assistance to Ethiopia amounted to almost $ 280
million)
-Training for the Ethiopian forces. (between 1953 and 1976, 3978
Ethiopian soldiers were trained in the United States)
 Raising agendas and pressing for resolutions against colonialism. (The
establishment of the organization of African Unity)
 Playing a significant role in maintaining international peace and
security. (Ethiopia deployed its troops for peacekeeping operations in Korea
in 1951 and Congo in 1961)
 Dergue’s Foreign policy was based on the principle of:
i. Proletarian internationalism:
 Promoting all-round relations and cooperation's with socialist
states, and strengthen its relations with the international
working class movement, revolutionary democratic forces,
national liberation movements, and other democratic and
peace-loving forces.
 Struggle against imperialism, colonialism, racism and other
During the forms of oppression and exploitation
Dergue ii. Peaceful coexistence:
Government  Promoting relations and cooperation's with all states based on
(1974—1991) equality and mutual benefit by respecting the rights of states to
live under the social and economic systems of their choice.
 Actively participating in international and regional
organizations that stand for peace and for the well being and
progress of mankind.
iii. Non-alignment:
 Strengthening of good neighborly relations with adjoining
states based on respect for the inviolability of national
sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, non-interference
in their internal affairs and peaceful resolution of conflicts
  Tried to build the military capability of the country:
Either to achieve the foreign policy objectives or to silence
domestic guerilla movements and deter the perceived external
enemies of the country.
 To maintain continuing friendship with socialist countries:
The regime signed numerous economic, social, political, trade,
cultural, educational, consular, and administrative agreements and
protocols with almost all socialist countries.
The relationship with Mosco and other socialist states enabled
Dergue to:
i. Access military and logistical support during the war with
Dergue’s foreign Somalia and in the Eritrean conflict.
policy in practice ii. Be recognized by the Soviet Union.
iii. Access quick and generous support to address problems
inherited from the past and related to the new socio-economic
and political order.
iv. Experts from the German Democratic Republic assisted the
military regime in its struggle against domestic guerilla
movements and external opponents, and in training cadres for
the completely reorganized security services
 On decolonization and anti-Apartheid struggle:
The regime had extended its military and technical support to
Freedom fighters in Angola and Rhodesia.
 Principles for External Relations according to Art. 86 of the 1995
FDRE constitution

 To promote policies of foreign relations based on the

protection of national interests and respect for the sovereignty
of the country.

 To promote mutual respect for national sovereignty and

equality of states and non-interference in the internal affairs
of other states.

Post 1991 foreign  To ensure that the foreign relation policies of the country are
policy of Ethiopia based on mutual interests and equality of states as well as that
international agreements promote the interests of Ethiopia.

 To observe international agreements which ensure respect for

Ethiopia's sovereignty and are not contrary to the interests of
its Peoples.

 To forge and promote ever growing economic union and

fraternal relations of Peoples with Ethiopia' s neighbours and
other African countries.

 To seek and support peaceful solutions to international

disputes.
  Ensuring the survival of the multi- national state.
 solving the domestic problems of the country, including;
lack of good governance, instability and lack of
economic development. (Democracy and development
are the foreign policy visions of the country)
Strategy: “inside-out” approach
- Addressing domestic political problem and economic
problems

Post 1991 foreign  Strengthening economic diplomacy (fighting poverty and

policy of Ethiopia backwardness and address the issues of development).
Economic diplomacy involves:
- Attracting foreign investments,
- Seeking markets for Ethiopian exportable commodities,
- seeking aid and confessional loans too.
Economic diplomacy helps to exploit the opportunities that
globalization offers, such as free trade, investment and technological
transfers.
 Adopting a kind of East-look policy.
 Building up the military capability of the country.
 Employing peaceful dialogues and negotiations to
peacefully coexist with others.
 YO U
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