Chapter 1

Introduction to Electromechanical Energy

Conversion

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 1

 1.1 Magnetic Circuits
One of the most obvious properties of a magnet is its ability to
attract to itself other pieces of iron or steel. Materials which
can be attracted by a magnet are known as magnetic material.
Such other materials that can not be attracted by a magnet are
called non-magnetic materials.

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 2

 Magnetic Field Concept
Magnetic Fields:
• Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by
which energy is converted (transferred) from one
form to another in electrical machines.

Magnetic Material
• Definition : A material that has potential to attract other
materials toward it, materials such as iron, cobalt, nickel
• Function: Act as a medium to shape and direct the magnetic
field in the energy conversion process

May 22, 2024 Mr. Delelegn 3

 Magnetic Field Concept
• Magnetic field around a bar
magnet
• Two “poles” dictated by
direction of the field
• Opposite poles attract (aligned
magnetic field)
• Same poles repel (opposing
magnetic field)

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 4

 Magnetic Field Concept
Magnetic Flux/ Flux Line Characteristic

1. Outside - Leaves the north pole (N) and enters the

south pole (S) of a magnet. Inside - Leaves the south
pole (S) and enters the north pole (N) of a magnet.
2. Like (NN, SS) magnetic poles repel each other.
3. Unlike (NS,SN) magnetic poles attracts each other.
4. Magnetic lines of force (flux) are always continuous
(closed) loops, and try to make as shortest distance
loop.
5. Flux line never cross each others

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 5

 Magnetic Field Concept

May 22, 2024 Mr. Delelegn 6

 Machines Basic Requirements
• Presence of a “magnetic fields” can be produced by:
– Use of permanent magnets
– Use of electromagnets
• Electric Machines  mechanical energy to electric
energy or vice versa
• Mechanical energy  Electric energy: (GENERATOR)
• Electric energy  mechanical energy: (MOTOR)

May 22, 2024 Mr. Delelegn 7

 Ampere’s Law
• Any current carrying wire will produce magnetic
field around itself.
Magnetic field around a wire:
• Thumb indicates direction of current flow
• Finger curl indicates the direction of field

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 8

 Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s law: the line integral of magnetic field
intensity around a closed path is equal to the sum of
the currents flowing through the surface bounded by
the path
H

 H  dl   i I1 I
2 q
dl

Recall that the vector dot product is given by


H  dl  Hdlcos( ) in which q is the angle
between H and dl.
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 9
 Ampere’s Law
If the magnetic intensity has constant magnitude
and points in the same direction as the incremental
length dl everywhere along the path, Ampere’s law
reduces to

Hl   i

in which l is the length of the path.

Examples
 of such cases: (i) Magnetic field around a
long straight wire, (ii) Solenoid

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 10

 Example 1:
( a long straight
Wire)

Example 2:
(Solenoid)

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 11

 Flux Density
• Number of lines of magnetic force (flux)
passing through unit area

or Wb/m2

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 12

 Field Intensity
• The effort made by the current in the wire to
setup a magnetic field.
• Magneto motive force (mmf) per unit length is
known as the “magnetizing force” H

• Magnetizing force and flux density related by:

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 13

 Permeability
• Permeability  is a measure of the ease by which a
magnetic flux can pass through a material
(Wb/Am). The higher the permeability, the better
flux can flow in the magnetic materials.
• Permeability of free space o = 4 x 10-7 (Web/Am)
• Relative permeability, r :

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 14

 Reluctance
• Reluctance, which is similar to resistance, is the opposition
to the establishment of a magnetic field, i.e." resistance” to
flow of magnetic flux. Depends on
• length of magnetic path ,
• cross-section area A and
• permeability of material .

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 15

 Magneto motive Force
• The product of the number of turns and the
current in the wire wrapped around the
core’s arm. (The ability of a coil to produce
flux)

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 16

 Magnetomotive Force
• The MMF is generated by the coil
• Strength related to number of turns and current,
Symbol F, measured in Ampere turns (At)

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 17

 Magnetization Curve
Behavior of flux density compared with magnetic
field strength, if magnetic intensity H increases by
increase of current I, the flux density B in the core
changes as shown.
B(T)  flux ()
Near saturation

Saturation

B  0 r H
linear
H(A/m)  current (I)
Magnetization curve (B-H characteristic)

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 18

 Magnetic Equivalent Circuit


i
lc
+
N F 
-

Analogy between magnetic

circuit and electric circuit E R

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 19

 Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap
l c


i c
+
N lg F
-
g

lc lg
c  ; g 
cAc 0Ag
Ni
  Ni  H c l c  H g l g
C  g
Flux density
c g
Bc  ; Bg 
Ac Ag
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 20
 Parallel Magnetic Circuit
l1 l2
I
l3 N

Loop I
1 3 II  NI = S33 + S11
2
= H3l3 + H1l1

S1 S3 S2 Loop II
I NI = S33 + S22
+ NI = H3l3 + H2l2
- Loop III
0 = S11 + S22
= H1l1 + H2l2
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 21
 Electric vs Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

Term Symbol Term Symbol

Magnetic flux F Electric current I

Flux density B Current density J
Magnetomotive F Electromotive E
force force
Permeability m Permitivity e
Reluctance Resistance R

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 22

 Leakage Flux
• The magnetic circuit assumes that all flux are
confined within the core, but in reality a small
fraction of the flux escapes from the core into the
surrounding low-permeability air, and this flux is
called leakage flux.

Useful
flux

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 23

 Fringing Effect
• The effective area provided for the flow of lines of
magnetic force (flux) in an air gap is larger than the
cross-sectional area of the core. This is due to a
phenomenon known as fringing effect.

Air gap
– to avoid flux
saturation when too
much current flows
- To increase
reluctance

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 24

 Example 1
Refer to Figure below, calculate:-
1) Flux 2) Flux density 3) Magnetic intensity
Given r = 1,000; no of turn, N = 500; current, i = 0.1 A. cross
sectional area, A = 0.0001m2 , and means length core lC = 0.36
m.

lc
i
N
1. 1.75x10-5 Wb
2. 0.175 Wb/m2
3. 139 AT/Wb

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 25

 Example 2
lg

 Movable
i part

N Data- 1T –
700 at/m

• The Figure represents the magnetic circuit of a relay. The coil has 500
turns and the mean core path is lc = 400 mm. When the air-gap lengths are
2 mm each, a flux density of 1.0 Tesla is required to actuate the relay. The
core is cast steel.
a. Find the current in the coil. (6.93 A)
b. Compute the values of permeability and relative permeability of the
core. (1.14 x 10 3 , 1.27)
c. If the air-gap is zero, find the current in the coil for the same flux density
(1 T) in the core. ( 0.6 A)
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 26
 Electromagnetic Induction
• When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a
voltage is produced across the conductor. This
principle is known as electromagnetic induction,
and the resulting voltage is an induced voltage.
d
e  N
dt
• The principle of electromagnetic induction is widely
applied in electrical circuits in the study and operation
of transformers, electrical motors and generators.

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 27

 FARADAY’S LAW
• Michael Faraday discovered the principle of
electromagnetic induction in 1831. He found that
moving a magnet through a coil of wire induced a
voltage across the coil, and that when a complete path
was provided; the induced voltage caused an induced
current, Faraday’s observations are as follows:
• 1. The amount of voltage induced in a coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field with respect to the coil (dφ/dt)
• 2. the amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly
proportional to the number of turns of wire in the coil
(N).
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 28
 Lenz’s Law
An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field
due to the induced current opposes the change in the magnetic
flux that induces the current.
As the magnet is moved toward the loop,
the B through the loop increases,
therefore a counter-clockwise current is
induced in the loop. The current produces
its own magnetic field to oppose the
motion of the magnet

If we pull the magnet away from the loop,

the B through the loop decreases, inducing
a current in the loop. In this case, the loop
will have a south pole facing the retreating
north pole of the magnet as to oppose the
retreat. Therefore, the induced current will
May 22, 2024 be clockwise. 29
Mr Delelegn.Z
 Self-Inductance
d d
• From Faraday’s law eN 
dt dt
  N


For a magnetic circuit composed of constant magnetic

permeability, the relationship between f and i will be
linear and we can define the inductance L as
L
• It can be shown later that i
2
N
L
 eq


May 22, 2024 

Mr Delelegn.Z 30
 Self-Inductance
• For a magnetic circuit having F Ni
constant magnetic permeability  
 l
or A

• So,
N N Ni or AN 2 N2 Henry
L  .  
i i l l 
or A



May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 31

 Mutual Inductance

i1  i2
+ +
N1 g N2
l1 turns l2
- turns
-

Notice the current i1 and i2 have Magnetic core

been chosen to produce the flux Permeability m,
in the same direction. It is also
assumed that the flux is confined Mean core length lc,
solely to the core and its air gap. Cross-sectional area Ac

May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 32

 Mutual Inductance

The total mmf is therefore F  N1i1  N 2i2

with the reluctance of the core neglected and assuming that Ac

= Ag the core flux
 is o Ac
  (N1i1  N 2i2 )
g
If the equation is broken up into terms attributable to the
individual current, the flux linkages of coil 1 can be
expressed as
 o Ac  o Ac 
1  N1  N 2
1 i1  N1N 2  i2
 g   g 
 1  L11i1  L12i2
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 33
 Mutual Inductance
o Ac 
where L11  N  2
1  is the self-inductance of coil 1
 g 

and L11i1 is the flux linkage of coil 1 due to its own current i1.

 The mutual inductance between coils 1 and 2 is

 o Ac 
L12  N1N 2  
 g 

and L12i2 is the flux linkage of coil 1 due to current i2.


May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 34
 Mutual Inductance

Similarly, the flux linkage of coil 2 is

o Ac  
2 o Ac

2  N 2  N1N 2  i1  N 2  i2
 g   g 
 2  L21i1  L22i2

where L21  L12 is the mutual inductance and

o Ac 
 L22  N 2

2
 g 
 is the self-inductance of coil 2.
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 35
 Mutual Inductance: Example

i1  i2
+ +
N1 g N2
l1 turns l2
- turns
-

Magnetic core
Permeability m >> mo,
Cross-sectional area Ac = Ag = 1 cm X 1.5916 cm
Air gap length, g = 2 mm
N1 = 100 turns, N2 =200 turns
Find L11, L22, and L12 = L21 = M
May 22, 2024 Mr Delelegn.Z 36
 Magnetic Stored Energy
We know that for a magnetic circuit with a single winding
  N  Li
d d d
and e   (N )  (Li)
dt dt dt

For a static magnetic circuit the inductance L is fixed
di
 eL
dt
For a electromechanical energy device, L is time varying
 di dL
eL i
dt dt

37

 Magnetic Stored Energy
The power p is d
p  ie  i
dt

Thus the change


in magnetic stored energy
t2 2 2

W   pdt   id  L d  1
2L  2 1
2
 2

t1 1 1

The total stored energy at any l is given by setting l1 = 0:


1 2 L 2
W    i
2L 2

38
