Physics

Semi-
Conductors

Subham Kalwar
Ayush Dhakal
 Topics Of Discussion

 Semi-Conductor introduction
 P and N type Semiconductors
 P-N Junction
 Semiconductor Diode characteristics
 Rectification Half Wave
Full Wave
 Reverse Breakdown
 Zener diode
 Logic Gates
 Introduction
Semiconductors are materials that
bridge the gap between conductors
and insulators, possessing unique
electrical properties that make them
indispensable in the realm of
electronics. These materials exhibit a
delicate balance, allowing for
controlled conduction of electrical
currents, which forms the foundation
of the electronic devices. Usually, they
are the elements having four valance
electrons, such as Silicon, Germanium
etc.
 Types Of Semi-Conductors
The P-Type Semiconductor: the P-type semiconductor, where "P" stands for positive. In these
materials, electron deficiencies, or "holes," become the stars of the show. Through a process
known as doping, we intentionally introduce acceptor impurities into the crystal lattice, creating a
semiconductor with an abundance of positive charge carriers. These holes move through the
lattice, conducting electricity in a unique and controlled manner.

The N-Type Semiconductor: On the flip side, we have the N-type semiconductor, with "N"
representing negative. Here, the majority charge carriers are excess of electrons, introduced
through a process called doping with donor impurities. These free-roaming electrons bring their
negative charge to the party, creating a distinct pathway for electrical conduction.
 P-Type: N-Type

As we unravel the mysteries of P-type and N-type semiconductors, we unlock the secrets
behind diodes, transistors, and the very foundation of electronic circuits.
 P-N Junction
At the heart of semiconductor technology lies a
boundary that represents the meeting point of P-
type and N-type semiconductors. This junction is
not just a physical boundary; it's a dynamic
interface that plays a pivotal role in
semiconductor devices.
The P-N junction comes to life through a process
called diffusion, where charge carriers move from
regions of higher concentration to lower
concentration. In the P-N junction, electrons from
the N-type region diffuse into the P-type region,
and holes from the P-type region diffuse into the
N-type region. This diffusion creates a depletion
zone at the junction, a region almost devoid of
free charge carriers.
 P-N Diode
P-N diode, a device born at the junction of P-type and N-type semiconductors. The P-N
diode, a simple yet powerful creation, leverages the unique properties of the P-N
junction to facilitate the controlled flow of electric current. This unassuming component
is the key to rectification, allowing current to pass in one direction while blocking it in
the other.
 Semiconductor Diode characteristics
Forward bias : When a positive voltage is applied to the P-side
and a negative voltage to the N-side, the diode becomes forward-
biased. This forward biasing lowers the potential barrier at the
junction, allowing electrons to flow from the N-side to the P-side, and
holes from the P-side to the N-side. This controlled flow of charge
carriers forms the basis of diode conduction.

Reverse bias : when a reverse bias is applied (positive voltage to

the N-side and negative voltage to the P-side), the potential barrier
increases, creating a depletion zone that restricts the flow of charge
carriers. This prevents significant current from passing through the
diode in the reverse direction, showcasing the diode's rectifying
behavior.
Half wave rectifier : It is the rectifier which converts only one half cycle of ac input into
pulsating dc.
D1
A D
1: During positive half cycle of ac, the
terminal A of transformer becomes
positive and B becomes negative. B C
2: So the diode D1 gets forward biased and
conducts the current.
3: This current passes through the load resistor. Hence the output voltage across the load resistor has positive
(+) at end D and negative (-) at end C.
4: During negative half cycle of ac, the terminal A of transformer becomes negative and end B becomes
positive.
5: The diode D1 gets reverse biased and does not conduct.
6: So, there is no current through the load resistor, and hence no voltage across it during this cycle
 Full wave rectifier: It is the rectifier which converts both positive and negative half cycles of ac input into
pulsating dc. A

C
D

i. During positive half cycle of ac, the terminal A of transformer becomes positive and B becomes negative
with respect to C.
ii. So the diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts the current, while the diode D2 remains reverse biased.
This current flows from RL from C to D.
iii. During negative half cycle of ac, the terminal A becomes negative and B becomes positive with respect to C.
iv. So the diode D1 gets reverse biased whereas D2 gets forward biased. Therefore D2 starts conducting and
this current flows through RL again in the same direction, i.e. from C to D
v. In both half cycles of ac, current always flows through RL always in the same direction, to D. Therefore the
output voltage vo is a pulsating dc
 Junction Breakdown
Junction Breakdown : The condition at which reverse current in the PN junction
diode suddenly becomes very high is known as junction breakdown. The value of
reverse bias voltage at which breakdown occurs is called the breakdown voltage. It is
represented by .

Types of Breakdown:
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche breakdown: In a lightly doped diode, depletion layer is wider. Beyond a
particular reverse electric field (ER = VR d ), the minority electrons gain sufficiently high
kinetic energy. Upon their collision with atoms, some covalent bonds are broken knocking
out electrons. The knocked out electrons also get accelerated, acquire sufficient kinetic
energy and knock out more electrons due to collisions. The process continues, producing a
very high number of free electron-hole pairs as in the avalanche. Consequently, the
magnitude of reverse current becomes very high.

 Zener breakdown: In a heavily doped diode, depletion layer is thinner. At a particular

reverse voltage, the reverse electric field (ER = VR d ) across the junction can be so high
that it can break all the covalent bonds over the junction, producing a very large number of
electron-hole pairs at once. Consequently, reverse current abruptly increases and the
mechanism is called Zener breakdown.
 Logic Gates
Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits, serving as the
backbone of modern computing and electronic systems. These electronic devices
make decisions based on binary logic, manipulating binary data (1s and 0s) to
perform complex computations, process information, and execute various tasks.

Some commonly used gates are :

 AND gate
 OR gate
 NOT gate
 NAND gate
 NOR gate
AND gate : The AND gate produces a high output (1) only when both of its inputs are high. Otherwise, it
produces a low output (0).

OR gate : The OR gate produces a high output if at least one of its inputs is high. It only produces a low
output when both inputs are low.
NOT Gate (Inverter): The NOT gate, or inverter, produces the opposite output compared to its input. If
the input is high, the output is low, and vice versa.

NAND Gate: The NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It produces a low
output only when both inputs are high.
NOR Gate: The NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It produces a high output
only when both inputs are low.