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Mid2 - Arguments and Rules of Interference

The document discusses quantification and quantifiers. It defines universal and existential quantification and provides examples of how quantifiers are used. It also covers negation of quantifiers, atomic formulas, well-formed formulas, and rules of inference for determining if an argument is valid.

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catli.carlo24
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18 views

Mid2 - Arguments and Rules of Interference

The document discusses quantification and quantifiers. It defines universal and existential quantification and provides examples of how quantifiers are used. It also covers negation of quantifiers, atomic formulas, well-formed formulas, and rules of inference for determining if an argument is valid.

Uploaded by

catli.carlo24
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Quantification

Quantification
• We use quantifiers to create propositional functions.
• This process is called quantification.
• Quantifiers express the extent to which a predicate is
true over a range of elements
• Numeric phrases tell us how a statement applies to a
group, affecting how we negate an assertion.
Quantification
• Imagine we have the statement:
“Every person who is 21 years of age or older is able to
purchase alcohol.
Sarah is 21 years old.”

•While it would seem logical to conclude that Sarah would then be


able to purchase alcohol legally, propositional logic alone is ill-
equipped with handling quantified variables, namely, what does “every
person” really mean?
Universal Quantifier
• Universal Quantification is the proposition that a property is
true for all the values of a variable in a particular domain,
sometimes called the domain of discourse or the universe of
discourse.
• P(x) is true for all values of x
• For all x, P(x)
• For each x, P(x)
• For every x, P(x)
• Given any x, P(x)
Universal Quantifier
• Universal Quantification is the proposition that a property is
true for all the values of a variable in a particular domain,
sometimes called the domain of discourse or the universe of
discourse.
• P(x) is true for all values of x
• For all x, P(x)
• For each x, P(x)
• For every x, P(x)
• Given any x, P(x)
Universal Quantifier

To determine if it’s a universal quantifier, you want to


look for words like all, each, every, any.
Existential Quantifier
• Existential quantification is the proposition that a
property is true for some value in a particular domain.
• There exists an x such that P(x)
• There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x)
• For some x, P(x)
• There is some x such that P(x)
Existential Quantifier
Quantifiers In Use
• Suppose we have two predicate variables x and y, where the domain
for x is F = {foxes} and y has the domain S = {snails}, where P(x,y) is
“Foxes are faster than Snails.”
Quantifiers In Use
• Suppose we have two predicate variables x and y, where the domain
for x is F = {foxes} and y has the domain S = {snails}, where P(x,y) is
“Foxes are faster than Snails.”
Quantifiers In Use
• Suppose we have two predicate variables x and y, where the domain
for x is F = {foxes} and y has the domain S = {snails}, where P(x,y) is
“Foxes are faster than Snails.”
Quantifiers
• And this means that the truth values of quantified statements can be
summarized as follows:
Quantifier Negation
• Negation must have the complete opposite truth
value from the original statement.

• For example, if we had the statement, “3 is a prime


number,” which is true, the negation would be “3 is not a
prime number,” which is false.
Quantifier Negation

Using the five circles, as seen below, we make the following


statement:
“Some circles are shaded.”
What would the negation of this statement be?
“Some circles are not shaded.” x
Quantifier Negation

• a negation must have the opposite truth value.

The trick is to change from a universal quantifier to an


existential quantifier or vice versa, adding a “not” to say,
“All circles are not shaded.”
Quantifier Negation
Quantifier Negation (universal)
Quantifier Negation (existential)
Atomic Formulas
• Predicate logic, also called predicate calculus, will consider the notion
of atoms or atomic formulas.

• A predicate name, followed by a list of variables such as P(x, y), where


P is the predicate name, and x and y are variables or terms, is referred
to as an atomic formula or atom.
Atomic Formulas
• For example, suppose M is the predicate representing “man is mortal”
and let x be a variable.
• Then M(x) is an atomic formula meaning “x is mortal.”

• A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on


some domain, and an atom is the most straightforward well-formed
formula in logic.
Well-formed formula
• sometimes abbreviated to (wff), is obtained by composing atoms with
logical connectives and quantifiers.

• a well-formed formula is a predicate with the following properties:


Rules of Inference
Introduction
• While the word “argument” may mean a disagreement between two
or more people, in mathematical logic, an argument is a sequence or
list of statements called premises or assumptions and returns a
conclusion

• An argument is only valid when the conclusion, which is the final


statement of the opinion, follows the truth of the discussion’s
preceding assertions.
Rules of Inference
• The rules of inference (also known as inference rules) are a
logical form or guide consisting of premises (or hypotheses)
and draws a conclusion.

• A valid argument is when the conclusion is true whenever all the


beliefs are true, and an invalid argument is called a fallacy
• An argument is valid when the conclusion logically follows from the
truth values of all the premises.
Rules of Inference
• There are two ways to form logical arguments
Is this argument valid?
Rules of Inference
• Without using our rules of logic, we can determine its truth
value one of two ways.

• Guessing the fallacy of each premise, knowing that the


conclusion is valid only when all the beliefs are valid.
• Construct a truth table and verify a tautology.
Rules of Inference
• Without using our rules of logic, we can determine its truth
value one of two ways.

• Guessing the fallacy of each premise, knowing that the


conclusion is valid only when all the beliefs are valid.
• Construct a truth table and verify a tautology.
Guessing the premise

if we know that both premises “If Marcus is a poet, then he is


poor” and “Marcus is a poet” are both true, then the
conclusion “Marcus is poor” must also be true.
Truth Table
Rules Of Inference
• If there are multiple premises and constructing a truth table
isn’t feasible
• We can follow the Inference Rules of Inference
Rules Of Inference
Rules Of Inference
Modus Ponens
Modus Tollens
Hypothetical Syllogism
Disjunctive Syllogism
Addition
Simplification
Resolution
Valid Vs Invalid Argument (Truth Table)
If logic is easy, then I am a monkey’s uncle. E U
I am not a monkeys uncle ~U
Therefor, logic is not easy ~E

Remember
Valid Vs Invalid Argument (Truth Table)
If this number is larger than 2, then its square is larger than 4. T F
This number is larger than 2. ~ T
Therefore, the square is not larger than 4 ~F
Valid vs Invalid Argument (Truth Table)
1. If you finish your homework, you may attend the reception.
You did not finish your homework.
Therefore you cannot go to the reception

2. If you have a correct password, then you can log-in.


You have a correct password.
Therefore , you can login.

3. If you have access to the network , then you can change your grade
You have access to the network.
Therefore, you can change your grade
Valid Vs Invalid Argument
• Test the validity of the argument:
If it snows, Paul will miss class.
Paul did not miss class.
Therefore, it did not snow.
Valid vs Invalid Argument
• Test the validity of the argument:
If it snows, Paul will miss class.
It did not snow.
Therefore, Paul did not miss class.

Invalid.. No rules of inference applied

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