CHAPTER FOUR

Knowledge and Reasoning

[email protected]
Knowledge
Representation(NR)
Contents will be
covered
 Knowledge
 What????
 Why?????
 KBA
 KE
 KR
 KR
 KR using
Logic
 Why????

14
 Knowledge: What and Why?
• Knowledge includes facts about the real world
entities and the
relationship between them
• Knowledge-based Systems (KBSs) are useless
without the ability to
Why Knowledge
represent is knowledge.
important ?
•• Hence,
We are there
livingisina complex
need to represent knowledge to ease the
environment.
development
of an intelligent system.
• It–Automate
enables to: reasoning , Discover new facts, Deduce new
facts that
follow from
–Make thedecisions
quality KB, and Answer users queries
- select courses of
15
actions, etc.
 Knowledge-based Agent
(KBA)
about their possible courses of
action.
• Agents can be seen as knowing about their
• KBA begins with
world, some
and knowledge of the world
reasoning
and
– Itofuses
its actions.
logical reasoning to maintain a description of the
world as new
percepts
– arrive
Learn new facts/knowledge that are inferred and unseen by
current
percept
– sDeduce a course of actions that will
achieve its goals
• One can also design an autonomous
agent thatfrom experience and construct knowledge with less
– learns
human
interventio
ns 16
 Knowledge-based Agent
(KBA)…
We can describe a knowledge-
based agent
at three levels:
- The most abstract
I. Knowledge Level level:
describe agent
by saying what it knows about the
world
II. Logical
Level. and what isitsencoded
- The level at which the knowledge goals are.
into sentences
of some
logical language.
III. Implementation Level.
- This is the level where sentences are implemented. This
level runs on 17
the agent architecture.
 Knowledge
engineering
from the human
extracting knowledge
(KE)
•KE is the process of building a knowledge base through

expert.
•Knowledge engineering is the process of
–Extracting knowledge from the human expert.
–Choose knowledge representation formalism
–Choose reasoning and problem solving strategy.
•A knowledge engineer is someone who investigates a particular
domain,
determines what concepts are important in that domain, and
creates
–A KEa has to decide what objects and relations are worth
formal
whichrepresentation
relations
representing, of the objects and relations inGoal
andhold among the
domain.
which objects
Knowledge Knowled
ge Knowled
acquisition Representation
ge
(Extract (choose KR
Method & Base 18
knowledge
 The two main tasks
of KE

•Knowledge base is used to store a set of facts and rules

about the
domain
–Each expressed in arepresentation
individual suitable representation
are called language.
sentences
–Sentences are expressed in a (formal) knowledge
representation
(KR) 19
 Knowledge Representation &
Reasoning
computer-tractable way such that the agent can
•Knowledge Representation (KR): express knowledge
reason out.
•Parts of KR in a
explicitly
language:
–Syntax of a language: describes the possible
configuration to form
sentences. E.g.: if x & y denote numbers, then x > y is a
sentence about
–Semantics: determines the facts in the world to which
numbers
the sentences
refer. E.g.: x > y is false when y is greater than x and true
otherwise
•Reasoning: is the process of constructing new sentences
from existing
facts in thereasoning
–Proper KB. ensures that the new configuration
20
represent facts that
actually follow from the facts
 Logi
represented such that
c
•A Logic is a formal language in which knowledge can be

conclusions can easily be drawn.

–It is a declarative language to assert sentences and deduce from
sentences.
•Components
–Syntax: what of aexpressions/structures
logic include syntax, semantics,
are allowedreasoning
in the
and inference
language. - Describes how to make sentences.
mechanism. E.g. my car (red) is ok, but my car(grey or green) is not.
–Semantics: express what sentences mean, in terms of
a mapping to real
world. of a sentence is not intrinsic to that sentence.
•The meaning
Semantics relate
sentences to reality.
•E.g. my
–Proof car (red)
Theory: It ismeans thatofmy
a means car is red.
carrying our reasoning using
21
- Itrules.
a set of helps to draw new conclusions from existing
 Why formal languages
(Logic) ?
•An obvious way of expressing or representing
facts and thoughts is by writing
them in a natural language such as English,
Amharic,
–Natural languages exhibitetc. However,
ambiguity. –Theand
E.g. small dogs meaning of a sentence depends on the
cats. sentence itself and on the context
•Ambiguity makes onreasoning
which the sentence
difficult was
and spoken
incomplete.
–Hence we need formal languages to express facts and concepts
in an
unambiguous and well-defined way.

22
 Revision
1. What are the Criteria's for evaluating
Searching algorithm performance
2. What is k/ge? Why k/ge is needed for
developing KBS?
3. What is the main purpose of KE? – The two main
tasks of KE?

4. Logic? Components of Logic? Why we use logic to

represent language in the KB?

23
 Propositional
logic
•A simple language useful for showing key ideas and
definitions
•Syntax: PL allows facts about the world to be represented as
sentences
formed from: symbols (P, Q, R, …) are used to represent
Proposition
Logical constants: True, False
facts about
the world: e.g.: P = "It is hot“, Q = "It is humid“, R = "It is
raining“
Logical connectives: not (), and (), or (), implies (), is
 Precedence order from highest to lowest is: , ,,,
equivalent, if and only if ().
 e.g. The sentence P v Q  R  S is equivalent to [(P) v (Q 
R)]  S
 Parenthesis ( ): Used for grouping sentences and to specify
precedenc
order of
e 24
 Propositional logic (PL)
sentences
•A sentence is made by linking prepositional
symbols together
using logical
– There connectives.
are atomic and complex
sentences.
– Atomic sentences consist of propositional symbol (e.g.
P,FALS
Q, TRUE,
– E)
Complex sentences are combined by using connectives
orparenthesi
– s:
while S and T are atomic sentences, S  T, (S  T), (S  T),
 T),(S  T) are complex
(Sand
sentences.
Examples: Given the following sentences about the
convert them
“weather into PL
problem”
sentences:
• “It is humid.”: Q QP
25
••“If
“Ifititisishot
humid, then it is
and humid, then it is (P  Q)  R
Syntax of Propositional
logic (PL)

Symbo |Q|R|
l …
 Exercis
e
Examples: Convert the following English sentences
toPropositional
logic
Let A = Lectures are active and R = Text is readable,
Pwill pass the exam, then represent the
= Aleazar
following:
• the lectures are not active:
•A
the lectures are active and the text is readable:A
• either the lectures are active or the text is readable:
R
AV
• if the lectures are active, then the text is not readable: AR
• the lectures are active if and only if the text isRreadable: A
R
A active,
if the lectures are (R  P
then
) if the text is not readable,
Aleazar will not
pass the exam: 27
 Terminol
ogy is valid sentence or
•Valid sentence: A sentence
tautology if and only
if Example:
it is True under all possible
“It’s raining or it’s interpretations
not in all
possible
raining.”worlds.
(R  R).
•Unsatisfiable: A sentence is unsatisfiable (inconsistent
sentence or
self- contradiction) if and only if it is not satisfiable, i.e. a
sentence that
isExample:
False under allraining
“It’s interpretations.
and it's notThe world is never like
what it
raining.” R  R
•Satisfiable:
describes. A sentence is satisfiable if and only if there is
some
interpretations
Example: “Itin is some
rainingworld
or it for
is which the sentence is
True.
humid”. R v Q, R
28
 Proof: Inference
Rules
•Inference is used to create new sentences that logically
follow from a
–It captures
given patterns of
set of sentences ininferences
the KB. that occur over & over
again.
–Once a rule is established, it can be used to make inferences
without going
through the tedious process of building truth tables
•Given set of inference rules (I) and set of sentences (KB);
Inference is
the process of applying successive inference rules from the
KB, each rule
–There are
inferring different
new inference
facts and rules
adding its (including
conclusion logical
to KB
equivalence) that can
be used for proofing and reasoning purpose.

29
 Logical equivalence
•Two sentences are logically
equivalent iff they are true in same
pνq≡qν Commutativity of
models
p
pΛq≡qΛ disjunction
p
(p Λ q) Λ r ≡ p Λ (q Λ r) Commutativity of
conjunction
(p ν q) ν r ≡ p ν (q ν r)
Associativity of
( ( p) ≡ p
conjunction
pq≡qp
Associativity of
pq≡pνq implication
disjunction
(p ν q) ≡ ( p Λ q) elimination
Double Negation
(p Λ q) ≡ ( p ν  q) De-Morgan
elimination
De-
(p  q) ≡ (p q) Λ (q  p) Morgan
contraposition
Biconditional
p Λ (q ν r) ≡ (p Λ q) ν (p Λ elimination
r) Distributive of Λ 30
 Inference
RUL Rules
PREMI CONCLU
Modus E A, SE
AB B SION
Ponens
And AB A
Elimination B
And A, AB
Introduction B A1  A2 …  An
Or A  A
Double Negation Elimination A
Introduction
Hypothetical Syllogism PQ, QR PR

In the case of modus ponens, if A is true and A  B

is true, then we know that B is true.

31
 Examp
• E.g. Given the following
le facts and relationship
between facts;
What can we say about the weather condition?
– It–isIfhumid:
it is humid, then it is hot :
– If it is hot and humid, then it is
raining:
1.
Q
2. Q  P
3. (P  Q)  R
4. (using Modes Ponens on P
1&
5. 2) AND introduction P  Q
(using
on 1 & 4)

32
 Propositional logic is a weak
language
•PL cannot handle even a domain with small worlds. The
problem is that there
are just too many propositions to handle since it only has one
•In PL world consists
representational of the
device: justproposition
facts. It is
–Identify
hard to : individuals: E.g.,
–Describe
Mary, 3 properties of (or relations between) individuals.
E.g. Belete is
–Generalize
taller for a given universe. E.g., all triangles
than Gelaw
have 3 sides
•Example: Prove that “my dog Fido is Nice, given that “all
dogs are Nice.”
–This requires to get at the structure and meanings of
statements (where
FOL is useful).
33
 First Order
Logic
•First-Order Logic (FOL) is expressive enough to
concisely represent any
kind of situation that are expressed in natural language.
–FOL represents objects and relations between objects,
variables, and
–Also k.as
quantifiers in predicate
addition to propositions
logic.

34
•Constants Components of FOL
symbol
–names (like Yonas, Kebede, …), numbers (like 1, 2, … n),
...
•Predicates:
–Predicates used to relate one object with another. E.g.
brother, >, ,...
Eg greater(5,3)
•Functions: Returns value (Sqrt, mother-of, color-of,...)
eg father-of(Mary)
= John
•Variables: X, Y, A, B,...
–Important to increase generalization capability of KB
•Connectives:
–Quantifiers specify whether all or some objects satisfy
or relations
–retains
properties betweenused in PL (, , , , )
connectives
objects
•Quantifiers:
–Two standard quantifiers: Universal (" for all, for every)
35
(“there
and exists,
Existential
 Components of FOL…
• Term
– Constant, e.g. Red
– Function of constant, e.g.
Color(Block1)
• Atomic Term= Constant | Variable |
Sentence
– Predicate relatingFunction(Term,….)
objects (no
variable)Atomic Sentence= Predicate(term,……)|
Term=Term
• Brother (John, Richard)
• Complex• Married (Mother(John), Father(John))
Sentences
– Atomic sentences + logical
connectives
• Brother (John, Richard) Brother (John,
Father(John))
36
 Components of FOL…
•
Quantifiers
– Each quantifier defines a variable for the duration of the
expression, and indicates the truth of the
following
expression…
Universal quantifier “for
all”– The expression is true for every possible value of
the variable
–  is the main connective with 
 x (elephant(x)
Every elephant is gray: 
gray(x))
Existential quantifier “there
exists”
– The expression is true for at least one value of
the variable
–  is the main connective with  37
 x (alligator(X) ^
 Universal quantification
• Universal Quantifiers: makes statements about every
object
<variables> <sentence>
–Everyone at ASU is
–All cats are mammals:
smart:
 xcat(x)  mammal(x)  xAt(x,ASU)  Smart(x)

•  xsentence P is true iff P is true with x being each possible object in

the given universe
–The above statement is equivalent to the
conjunction
At(Aleazar, ASU)  Smart(Aleazar) 
Conjunction
..
At(Rawuda, ASU)  Smart(Rawuda) 
•A common mistake to avoid
–Typically,  is the main connective with 
–Common mistake: the use of  as the main connective with :
 At(x,
x ASU)  Smart(x) is true if “Everyone is at ASU & 38
everyone is smart”
 Existential quantification
•Makes statements about some objects in the
universe
<variables> <sentence >
- There is a student who is smart
–Someone at ASU is smart:
 xAt(x,ASU)  Smart(x)
(x) student(x)  smart(x)
 xsentence P is true iff P is true with x being some
possible objects in the universe.
–The above statement is equivalent to the disjunction
At(Jonas, ASU)  Smart(Jonas)  disjunction
At(Alemu,
…. ASU)  Smart(Alemu) 
•Common
. mistake to avoid
–Typically,  is the main connective with 
–Common mistake: using  as the main connective with :
 xAt(x,ASU)  Smart(x) is true if there is anyone 39
who is not at ASU
 Nested quantifiers
•x,y parent(x,y)  child(y,x)
–for all x and y, if x is the parent of y then y is the
child of x.
•x y Loves(x,y)
–There is a person who loves everyone in the
–Everyone in the given world
given universe is loved by at
least one pe •y x Loves(x,y)
Properties of same
– X y is the quantifiers
as y x
 xyis the same as yx
–
– xyis not the same as yx
•Quantifier duality: each can be expressed using the other,
using negation ()
x x
 Likes(x,icecream)  Likes(x,icecream)
– Everyone likes ice cream means that there is nobody who
x
dislikes  Likes(x,cake)
ice cream x
40
Likes(x,cake)
–There is someone who likes cake means that there is no one who
Syntax of FOL

41
 Sentence structure
In FOL the basic unit is a predicate
(argument/terms) structure called
•Terms refer to sentence to represent facts.
objects
Example: likes(muhe, chocolate);
tall(Silesh)
–Terms or arguments can be any of: Constant symbol, such as
‘muhe’,
variable symbol, such as X , functions, such as
•Amotherof(Silesh), father-of(
predicate is the one that says something about the subject.
father-of(
red
E.g., There isjohn))
a
book
•Subject: color of the book, represented as: x
book(x)red(x)
–Predicate also refers to a particular relation
between objects
friends(motherof(yonas) ,
•Example:
–A predicatelikes(X, richard)
motherof(sami))
statement takes the value 42
 Sentences
Atomic sentences: formed from a predicate symbol followed by
alist of
parenthesized
terms
Atomic sentence = predicate1 n
(term ,...,term
Example:) Brother(John, Richard)

•Atomic sentences can have arguments that are complex

(term1 ,...,term
termsn (e.g. term = function
) Example:
)
married(fatherof(Richard),motherof(John))
Complex sentences: complex sentences are made by combining
atomic sentences
S, S  S1 , S2  S ,1S  2S , S 1S , 2
using connectives: 1 2
Ex. likes(john, mary)  tall(mary)
tall(john)  handsome(john)

Sibling(John, Richard)  Sibling(Richard, John)

•Sentences can also be formed using quantifiers to indicate
how to treat variables:
– Universal quantifier: x lovely(x) - Everything is lovely. 43

– Existential quantifier: x lovely(x) -

 Sentences…
•Can have several quantifiers, e.g.,
 x loves(x,
y y)
 handsome(x)
x   loves(y,
y x)
Represent the following in FOL:
•Everything in the garden is lovely  x in(x, garden)  lovely(x)
•Everyone likes ice
•Peter has some friends  x friends(x, Peter)
cream  x likes(x, icecream)
•Bereket plays the piano or the violin
plays(bereket, piano) v plays(bereket, violin)
•Some people like snakes - x(person(x) Λ likes(x, snakes))
•Fikadu did not write city – write( fikadu, city)
•Nobody wrote City – x write(x, city)
•Nobody did not write City x write(x, city)
44
 Semantics
•There is a precise meaning to expressions in predicate logic.
•Like in propositional logic, it is all about determining
whether something is true or false.
•x P(x) means that P(x) must be true for every object x
in the domain of interest.
•x P(x) means that P(x) must be true for at least one
object x in the domain of interest.

•Atomic sentence is true if the relation referred by the

predicate holds b/n the objects referred by the
arguments
brother(John, Richard)
•The truth value of complex sentences depends on logical
connectives used
older(John,30)  younger(John,30)
45
Proof and inference
•We can define inference rules allowing us to say that if
certain things are true, certain other things are sure to
be true,
E.g. All men are mortal
Aristotle is a man
using logical inferences we can deduce that:
Aristotle is mortal

x man(x) mortal(x)
man(Aristotle)
so we can conclude that: mortal(Aristotle)
–This involves matching man(x) against man(Aristotle)
and binding the variable x to Aristotle.
46
 Unification
• Unification is an algorithm for determining the
substitutions needed to make two expressions match
– Unification is a "pattern matching" procedure that
takes two atomic sentences as input, and returns the
most general unifier, i.e., a shortest length substitution
list that makes the two literals match.
– E.g.: To make, say p(X, X) and p( Y, Z) match, subst(X/ Y) or
subst(X/ Z)
• Note: It is possible to substitute two variables with the
same value, but not the same variables with different values.

•Example
Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Unifier
group(x, cat(x), dog(Bill)) group(Bill, cat(Bill), y) {x/Bill, y/dog(Bill)}
group(x, cat(x), dog(Bill)) group(Bill, cat(y), z) {x/Bill, y/Bill, z/dog(Bill)}
group(x, cat(x), dog(Jane)) group(Bill, cat(y), dog(y)) Failure 47
 Unification…
•A variable can never be replaced by a term containing that
variable. For example, x/f(x) is illegal.
•Unification and inference rules allows us to make inferences on a
set of logical assertions. To do this, the logical database must be
expressed in an appropriate form
• A substitution α unfies atomic sentences p and q if pα = qα
p q α
Knows(John,x) Knows(John,Jane) {x/Jane}
Knows(John,x) Knows(y, Abe) {y/John, x/Abe}
Knows(John,x) Knows(y,Mother(y)) {y/John, x/Mother(John)}
Knows(John,x) Knows(x,Abe) Fail

Unify rule: Premises with known facts apply unifier to conclusion

Example. if we know q and Knows(John,x) → Likes(John,x)
then we conclude Likes(John,Jane)
Likes(John,Abe)
Likes(John,Mother(John)) 48
 Inference rules
• Rules for PL apply to FOL as well. For example,
– Modus Ponens
– Resolution
– And-Introduction
– And-Elimination, etc.

• Sound inference rules for use with quantifiers:

–Universal Elimination
–Existential Introduction
–Existential Elimination
Sound inference rule- if a set of premises are all true,
any conclusion drawn from those premises must also be
true 49
 Sound Inference Rules
•Universal Elimination: If x P(x) is true, then P(c) is true,
where c is a constant in the domain of x.
Example: x eats(x, IceCream).
Using the substitution (x/Aleazar) we can infer eats(Aleazar, Icecream).
– The variable symbol can be replaced by any constant symbol or
function symbol.
• Existential Introduction: If P(c) is true, then x P(x) is
inferred.
Example: eats(John, IceCream) we can infer x eats(x,
icecream).
– All instances of the given constant symbol are replaced by the
new variable symbol.
• Existential Elimination: From x P(x) infer
P(c).
Example: x eats(Sol, x) infer eats(Sol, Cheese)
– Note that the variable x is replaced by a brand new constant (like
Cheese) that does not occur in this or any other sentence in the KB 50
Inference
Mechanisms
• Inference is a means of interpretation of
knowledge in the
KB to reason
• There are twoand give advise
inference to users
strategies toquery.
control and
organize
the–steps taken
Forward to solvealso
chaining: problems :
called data-
driven chaining
• It starts with facts and rules in the KB and try to
draw
conclusions from the
data
– Backward chaining: also called goal-
driven chaining
• It starts with possible solutions/goals and tries to
gather
information that verifies the
solution 51
 Cont
The choice of strategy depends on the nature of the problem.
Forward chaining- starts w’ a set of rules and a
….
set of facts and tries to find away of using
those rules and facts to deduce a conclusion or
come up with a suitable course of action.
Forward chaining is the best choice if:
– All the facts are provided with the problem
statement;
or:
– There is no any sensible way to guess what
the goal is at the beginning of the
consultation.
or:
– There are many possible goals. 52
  Backward chaining is the best choice if:
Cont
– The goal is given in the problem statement, ….
Or:
– can sensibly be guessed what the goal is? at the
beginning of the consultation;
or:
– The system has been built so that it sometimes asks
for pieces of data (e.g. "please now do the gram test on
the patient's blood, and tell me the result"), rather
than expecting all the facts to be presented to it.
• This is because (especially in the medical domain) the test
may be
w/c inference mechanism is better? Why?
– expensive,
– or unpleasant,
– or dangerous for the human participant
so one would want to avoid doing such a test unless there was a good
reason for it. 53
Quiz
1. What are the two main tasks of KE?
Discus it.
2. List part of KR language?

54
Knowledge based systems
(KBS)

[email protected]

1
 Contents will be covered
 Differentiate data, information and knowledge

 What is knowledge base?

 Define KBS

Architecture of KBS

 KBS in AI

2
 Data, Information, and Knowledge
• What is Data and Information? Are they different from Knowledge
 data!=information!=knowledge
• :DUnorganized and unprocessed facts;
static; a set of discrete facts about events

• : Aggregation of data that makes

decision making easier

• :Kis derived from information in the same

way information is derived from data; it is a
person’s range of information. 3
 What is Knowledge
Knowledge includes facts, concepts, procedures, models, exam
about the real world entities and the relationship between them
- It is an understanding gained through experience

- It is the sort of information that people use to solve problems.

- familiarity with the way to perform a task

- an accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or heuristics

• Characteristics of Knowledge:
- It is voluminous in nature and requires proper structuring.

- It may be incomplete and imprecise.

4
- It may keep on changing (dynamic).
 Knowledge base
• Knowledge base is used to store facts and rules.
In order to solve problems, the computer needs an inter
model of the world.
- This model contains, for example, the description of releva
objects and the relations between these objects.
- All information must be stored in such a way that it is readily
accessible.
• Various methods have been used for KR, such as
• logic,
• semantic networks,
• frames,
5
• scripts, etc...
 Knowledge base systems (KBSs)
a computer system w/c generates and utilizes k/ge from d/t sources, dat
and information. These systems aid to solving problems, especially complex
by utilizing AI concept.
• Deal with treating knowledge and ideas on a computer.
- Emphases to the importance of knowledge.

• Use inference to solve problems on a computer.

- Knowledge-based systems describes programs that reason over extensive knowledge b

Have the ability to learn ideas so that they can obtain information from outs
use it appropriately.
- The value of the system lies in its ability to make the workings of the human mind
6
understandable and executable on a computer.
KBS Architecture
Learning

7
 Artificial Intelligence and KBS
Knowledge based system is part of Artificial Intelligen

AI also requires extensive knowledge of the subject at h

- AI program should haveknowledge base

- Knowledge representation is one of the most important and mo

active areas in AI.

- AI programs should be learning in nature and update its

knowledge accordingly.
 Is AI equals human intelligence?
8
Can we create a KB called mind?
Reading Assignment
• KNOWLEDGE ACUISTIONS

• KNWOLEDGE REPRSENATION(KR

• KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION

• KNOWLEDGE MANIPULATION

9
Intelligenc
e

10
 Contents will be covered
 Describe the concept of intelligence

 What are the constitute of intelligence?

 Describe what an agent is?

 classify the inputs and the outputs of various agen

11
 Intelligence
• The ability of a system to o solve problems,
o calculate, o understand complex ideas,
o reason, o use natural language fluently,
o perceive relationships and analogies, o classify,
o learn from experience, o generalize, and
o store and retrieve information from o adapt new situations.
memory,

 Intelligence is the capability of observing, learning, remembering

reasoning.

•AI attempts to develop intelligent agents.

12
 Cont’d
Characteristics of Intelligent system
- Use vast amount of knowledge

- Learn from experience and adopt to changing environment

-Interact with human using natural language and speech

- Tolerate error and ambiguity in communication

-Respond in real time

13
 What is Intelligence Composed of?

 Reasoning: is the set of processes that enables us to provide ba

for judgment, making decisions, and prediction.
o There are broadly two types:
 Inductive Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning
14
 Cont’d
Learning: is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill
studying, practicing, being taught, or experiencing
something.
o Learning enhances the awareness of the subject
of the study.

Problem solving: is the process in which one perceives

es to arrive at a desired solution from a present situation b
king some path, which is blocked by known or unknown
hurdles.
o includes decision making, which is the process of selecting t
best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to rea
the desired goal are available. 15
 Cont’d
 Perception: is the process of acquiring, interpreting
selecting, and organizing sensory information.
o presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensor
organs.
o In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acqu
by the sensors together in a meaningful manner.

Linguistic Intelligence: is one’s ability to use, compreh

eak, and write the verbal and written language.
o is important in interpersonal communication.

16
 Agent
• An agent is something that acts in an environment.
• An agent acts intelligently if:
o its actions are appropriate for its goals and circumstance
o it is flexible to changing environments and goals
o it learns from experience
o it makes appropriate choices given perceptual and
computational limitations

17
Agents acting in an environment

18
 Examples of Agent
Organisations : Microsoft, Al Qaeda, Government of Canada, UBC, CS De

• People: teachers, physicians, engineers, researchers, travel agents, farme

waiters, stock traders...

Computers/devices: thermostats, user interfaces, airplane controllers, netw

controllers, games, advising systems, tutoring systems, diagnostic assistan
robots, Google
• car, Mars rover...

• Animals: dogs, mice, birds, insects, worms, bacteria...

19
 Inputs of an agent
• Abilities: the set of things it can do.

• Goals/Preferences: what it wants, its desires, its values,...

Prior Knowledge : what it comes into being knowing, what it doesn't get f

experience,...

• History of observations (precepts, stimuli) of the environment

• (current) observations : what it observes now

• past experiences : what it has observed in the past

20
 Examples of agent: robot
• Abilities: movement, grippers, speech, facial expressions,. .

• Goals: deliver food, rescue people, score goals, explore,. . .

Prior knowledge: what is important feature, categories of objects,

sensor tell us,. . .

• Observations: vision, sonar, sound, speech recognition, gestur

recognition,. . .

Past experiences: effect of steering, slipperiness, how people mov

21
 Class work
• Agent

- Teacher

- Student

- Researcher

- Medical Doctor

22
 Assignment II (due: 5 days)
cuss one of the following concepts. Refer at least five so
ks, articles). present in class and send via email.
Knowledge based system:
What is KBS? KBS vs. ES vs. AI; Knowledge acquisition, knowle
modeling and knowledge representation .
• Reasoning:
What is reasoning, Case based reasoning; probabilistic reasoning; f
easoning; rule-based reasoning
• Learning:
- What is Machine learning? Support Vector Machine(SVM), Hid
Markov Model(HMM), Bayesian Belief Network
23