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13 views

CH 2

Uploaded by

sshahaz.2023
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture
6th Edition

Chapter 2
Computer Evolution and
Performance
Evolution of Computers
Evolution:
—Increasing processor speed
– Keep processor busy as much of the time as
possible
—Decreasing component size
—Increasing memory size
—Increasing I/O capacity & speed
A Design Issue:
Balance in performance among various elements e.g.
Using techniques to balance match the memory access
time with the processor speed
ENIAC - background
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
• Mauchly and Eckert
• University of Pennsylvania
• The world’s first general-purpose electronic
digital computer
• Trajectory tables for weapons
• Started 1943
• Finished 1946
—Too late for war effort
• Used until 1955
ENIAC - details
• Decimal (not binary)
• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Each digit represented by 10 vacuum tubes
• Programmed manually by switches
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons
• 15,000 square feet
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions per second
von Neumann/Turing
• Stored Program concept
• Main memory storing programs and data
• ALU operating on binary data
• Control unit interpreting instructions from
memory and executing
• Input and output equipment operated by control
unit
• Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
—IAS
• Completed 1952
Structure of von Neumann machine
IAS - details
• 1000 x 40 bit words
—Binary number
—2 x 20 bit instructions
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
—Memory Buffer Register(MBR)
—Memory Address Register(MAR)
—Instruction Register(IR)
—Instruction Buffer Register(IBR)
—Program Counter(PC)
—Accumulator(AC)
—Multiplier Quotient(MQ)
Structure
of IAS –
detail
Commercial Computers
• 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
• UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
• US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations
• Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation
• Late 1950s - UNIVAC II
—Faster
—More memory
IBM
• Manufacturer of punched-card processing
equipment
• 1953 - the 701
—IBM’s first stored program computer
—Scientific calculations
• 1955 - the 702
—Business applications
• Lead to 700/7000 series
Transistors
• Replaced vacuum tubes
• Smaller
• Cheaper
• Less heat dissipation
• Solid State device
• Made from Silicon (Sand)
• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs
• William Shockley et al.
Transistor Based Computers
• Second generation machines
• NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines
• IBM 7000
• DEC - 1957
—Produced PDP-1
Microelectronics
• Literally - “small electronics”
• A computer is made up of gates, memory cells
and interconnections
• These can be manufactured on a semiconductor
• e.g. silicon wafer
Generations of Computer
• 1st: Vacuum tube - 1946-1957 40,000 ops./sec
• 2nd: Transistor - 1958-1964 200,000 ops./sec
• 3rd: Small scale integration - 1965 on 1,000,000 ops./sec
— Up to 100 devices on a chip
• Medium scale integration - to 1971
— 100-3,000 devices on a chip
• 4th: Large scale integration - 1971-1977 10,000,000 ops./sec
— 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
• 5th: Very large scale integration - 1978 100,000,000 ops./sec
to date
— 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
• Ultra large scale integration
— Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Moore’s Law

• Increased density of components on chip


• Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel
• Number of transistors on a chip will double every year
• Since 1970’s development has slowed a little
— Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
• Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
• Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths,
giving higher performance
• Smaller size gives increased flexibility
• Reduced power and cooling requirements
• Fewer interconnections increases reliability
Growth in CPU Transistor Count
IBM 360 series
• 1964
• Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series
• First planned “family” of computers
—Similar or identical instruction sets
—Similar or identical O/S
—Increasing speed
—Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)
—Increased memory size
—Increased cost
• Multiplexed switch structure
DEC PDP-8
• 1964
• First minicomputer
• Did not need air conditioned room
• Small enough to sit on a lab bench
• $16,000
—$100k+ for IBM 360
• Embedded applications & OEM
• BUS STRUCTURE
DEC - PDP-8 Bus Structure

Main Memory I/O I/O


Console CPU Module Module
Controller

OMNIBUS
Semiconductor Memory
• 1970
• Fairchild
• Size of a single core
—i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage
• Holds 256 bits
• Non-destructive read
• Much faster than core
• Capacity approximately doubles each year
Intel
• 1971 - 4004
—First microprocessor
—All CPU components on a single chip
—4 bit
• Followed in 1972 by 8008
—8 bit
—Both designed for specific applications
• 1974 - 8080
—Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor
Speeding it up
• Pipelining
• On board cache
• On board L1 & L2 cache
• Branch prediction
• Data flow analysis
• Speculative execution
Performance Mismatch
• Processor speed increased
• Memory capacity increased
• Memory speed lags behind processor speed
DRAM and Processor Characteristics
Trends in DRAM use
Solutions
• Increase number of bits retrieved at one time
—Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper”
• Change DRAM interface
—Cache
• Reduce frequency of memory access
—More complex cache and cache on chip
• Increase interconnection bandwidth
—High speed buses
—Hierarchy of buses
Pentium Evolution (1)
• 8080
— first general purpose microprocessor
— 8 bit data path
— Used in first personal computer – Altair
• 8086
— much more powerful
— 16 bit
— instruction cache, prefetch few instructions
— 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
• 80286
— 16 Mbyte memory addressable
— up from 1Mb
• 80386
— 32 bit
— Support for multitasking
Pentium Evolution (2)
• 80486
—sophisticated powerful cache and instruction
pipelining
—built in maths co-processor
• Pentium
—Superscalar
—Multiple instructions executed in parallel
• Pentium Pro
—Increased superscalar organization
—Aggressive register renaming
—branch prediction
—data flow analysis
—speculative execution
Pentium Evolution (3)
• Pentium II
—MMX technology
—graphics, video & audio processing
• Pentium III
—Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics
• Pentium 4
—Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals
—Further floating point and multimedia enhancements
• Itanium
—64 bit
—see chapter 15
• See Intel web pages for detailed information on
processors
Internet Resources
• http://www.intel.com/
—Search for the Intel Museum
• http://www.ibm.com
• http://www.dec.com
• Charles Babbage Institute
• PowerPC
• Intel Developer Home

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