Composting

• What Is Compost?
– The product resulting from the controlled biological decomposition of
organic materials
– Sanitized through the generation of heat
– Stabilized to the point where it is beneficial to plant growth
– Provides humus, nutrients, and trace elements to soils

• Benefits of Composting
– Saves money
– Helps improve soil fertility
– Protects the environment
• Compost Distinct from Soils:
– FRIABLE, POROUS, AMORPHOUS, DARK
– ORGANIC AND MINERAL BALANCE
– MACRO AND MICRO-AGGREGATES
The Composting Process
• Generally, the biological oxidative decomposition of organic
constituents in waste

• Biological decomposition in aerobic environment

• Decomposition & mineralization by microbes
– Bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoans, nematodes
• Outputs
– Heat
– Water Vapor
– Carbon Dioxide
– Nutrients and minerals (compost)
• PROCESS OCCURS NATURALLY, BUT CAN BE
ACCELERATED BY CONTROLLING ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS
 Generalized representation of the composting process

Water
vapor Heat CO2 Gas
RAW
MATERIALS
(ORGANIC
MATERIALS)
Compost
►LAND pile
FILLED
WASTES
(FOOD,
WOOD,
TEXTILES, Microorgani
SLUDGES,
ETC.)
sms
►AGRICULT
URAL Finished
WASTES
(PLANT OR
O2 compost
ANIMAL)
►INDUSTRI
AL
MANUFACTU
RING
 Principles of Composting,
The breakdown of OM is a dynamic process accomplished by a succession of MO:

 Initial mechanical breakdown is done by Mesofauna (mites, sow bugs, worms,

springtails, ants, nematodes and beetles)

 Mesophilic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and protozoa, (10 0C- 450C),

 initiate the composting process

 Then, thermophiles MO(450C - 700C ) takeover

 Aerobic degradation of easily degradable compounds
 ↑temperature kills pathogens, weed seeds, and phytotoxins

 Finally, mesophilic MO re-colonize (↓380C),, curing phase begins

 humic substance(mature or finished compost),
 Require minimum oxygen and
 biological processes/activities become very low
 Composting microorganisms
• bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi are involved
• Succession of MO in composting process follow:
bacteria(thermophilic)→actinomycetes→fungi
• Bacteria: Take up soluble sugars and amino acids,
C6H12O6+ 6 O2=> 6 CO2+ 6 H2O + energy
• hemicellulose is then broken down
• Finally, pectin and cellulose are digested by fungi, then digest lignin and the
waxes

 Cellulases (exo or endo)are especially common in soil/plant

inhabiting fungi
 Many Fungi in Ascomicotina and basidomycotina are able to
digest cellulose
 Lignin (polymer of phenyl-propanoid units) complete degradation
need lignin peroxidase and/or manganese peroxidase enzymes
 Ligninolytic potental is more common in the Basidomycotina
 Generalized food web of the composting ecosystem

ORGANISMS OF UPPER TROPHIC HUMIC

LEVEL SUBST
RATES
DEATH OF
MICROORGANISMS
Mineral
Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi
substances
CO2

Metabolic
METABOLISM OF
products
MICROORGANISMS
Water
Water vapor
phase

Carbohydrates Cellulose,
, lipids and Hemicellul
pectin,
proteins ose
and Lignin
Cont…
• Some microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes)
involved in composting
Actinomycetes Fungi Bacteria
Actinobitida ahromogena Aspergillus fumigatus Alcaligenes faecelis
Microbispora bispora Humicola grisea Bacillus brevis
Pseudocardia thermophilia Myroccum thermophilum B. Circulans complex
Streptomyces rectus Papulospora thermophilia B. Coagulans type A
Thermoactinomyces Scytalidium thermophilim B. Coagulans type B
sacchari

Pseudocardia thermophilia Sporotrichum thermophilie B. strearothermphilus

Clostridium thermocellum
Escherichia coli
Source: Palmisaro. A. C. and Bartaz. M. A (1996)Microbiology of solid waste, CRC Press. Inc. 2000
 Temperature
• Affects microbial activity, and its variation affect the various
phases of composting.
• Produced from organic materials breakdown by microbes.

• Organisms in composting system can be divided into three classes:

– Cryophiles or psychrophiles (0oC – 25oC),
– Mesophiles (25oC – 45oC), and
– Thermophiles (>45oC).

• A good indicator of various stages of composting process. the process is

divided into four based on temperature:
– Mesophilic stage,
– Thermophilic stage,
– Second mesophilic stage, then
– Maturation stage.
 Chemical processes
C:N ratio:
• Composting is usually successful when the mixture of
organic material consists 20:1 to 40:1 C:N ratio.
– > 30:1 – not enough food for microbial population
– < 25:1 – nitrogen lost as ammonia (odors)

• During bioconversion of the material carbon will be

reduced.
• Then, C:N ratio reduces which is attributed to loss of total
dry mass due to loss of carbon as CO2.
• The final C:N ratio of 15:1 to 20:1 will be expected.
• Maintaining NH3 concentration is important
• Maintaining C:N ratio after composting is also important,
 Cont…
Phosphorus:
• Levels of P will be important to determine the quality of compost.
• A C:P ratio of 100:1 to 200:1 is desirable.
• P concentration might increase as composting proceeds

Sulfur:
• Sufficient quantities of S can lead to the production of volatile,
odorous compounds.
• The major source of S are cysteine and methionine (amino acids).
• Under well-aerated condition,
– the sulfides are oxidized to sulfates.
• But, under anaerobic conditions
– they are converted to volatile organic sulfides or H2S, leading
to a bad odor
 Physical processes
Moisture content:
• Comes from either the initial feedstock or the metabolic water
produced by microbial action.
• Lost by vaporization(1g of OM releases about 25kJ of heat, which
can vaporize 10.2g of water), further coupled with losses due to
aeration.

• Hence, moisture is an important factor to be controlled as it

influences;
– Structural and thermal properties of the material,
– The rate of biodegradation and metabolic process of microbes.
• Should be 60% after the organic wastes have been mixed.
– If MC > 60%, the structural strength of the compost deteriorates,
oxygen movement is inhibited, and the process tends to be
anaerobic.
– If MC < 60%, the rate of decomposition decreases rapidly.
 Cont…
Oxygen and aeration:
• Aeration provides oxygen to the aerobic organisms for
composting.
• Important function of controlling temperature as well as removing
excess moisture and gases

• Oxygen is necessary for aerobic metabolism and for oxidizing

various organic molecules
– If oxygen supply is limited, the composting process might turn
anaerobic, which is slower and odorous process.
– A minimum oxygen concentration of 5% is necessary to avoid
an anaerobic situation.

• Turning the pile regularly or by mechanical agitation will ensure

sufficient oxygen supply.
 Particle size
• Critical for balancing:
– Surface area for growth of microbes (biofilm)
• Larger particles (> 1mm)
– Lower surface area to mass ratio
– Particle interior doesn’t compost – lack of oxygen
• Smaller particles (< 1/8mm)
– Tend to pack and compact
– Inhibit air flow through pile(reduces the effectiveness of oxygen supply)
– But, aerobic decomposition increases

• Optimum size is very material specific

 Biological changes
Fate of pathogens during compoting:
• Phatogenes are destroyed in a composting process by a
combination of factors including;
– Competition for food
– Inhibition and antagonism
– Consumption by compost microorganisms,
– Biological heat produced by compost microorganisms,
– Antibiotics produced by compost microorganisms.
• Generally, the biodiversity and the high
temperature achieved acts as a barrier to
colonization by an unwanted microorganisms in
the composting process.
 Chemical changes
• Around 50% of the OM will be fully mineralised
• Protein, cellulose and hemicelluloses are easily degradable.
– Many of these compounds produce organic residue, referred to
as humic matter.
• The amount of humic acid increases during the process.
• Increase in aromatic structures, phenolic structures and carboxilic
structures was also evidenced,
• Whereas decrease in O-alkyl structures, polysaccharides, and
amino acids was recorded.
Mineralisation
• End products of composting process are water, organic and
inorganic matter,
• During the process the ash or inorganic component increases due
to loss of organic fraction or volatile solids as CO2.
 Cont…
pH:
• During composting process the pH changes from an initial pH of 5-
6 due to the formation of CO2 and organic acids,
• Rise to 8-8.5, which is due to the decomposition of proteins and
elimination of CO2.
• Optimum range 6 – 7.5
– Bacterial activity dominates above 6.5 pH
• Below pH = 6.5
– Fungi dominate over bacteria
– Composting can be inhibited

• Above pH – 8.0
– Ammonia gas can be generated
 Respiratory rate (O2 uptake and CO2 formation)
• O2 consumption and CO2 formation should be monitored,
– Ensure sufficient aeration
– A 1:1 (O2/CO2 ) ratio will be an indication of good composting

• Initially O2 ↓ from 21% to 10%

– As temprature ↑
– And CO2 evolution ↑
• O2, finally, return to 21% at ambient temprature
• Respiratory quotient (RQ)
– It is the relation between CO2 evolution and O2
consumption
– good composting process RQ value will be about 0.9
 Addition of bulking agents
• Mixing bulking agents (wood chips, yard trimmings,
bark, municipal solid wastes) generally used to
– Add source of carbon
– Lower the moisture content
– Provide structural support,
– Increase porosity,
– Favor aeration
• Obtain biomass with interstitial spaces(more than
25%)
• Used to Avoid agglomerated biomasses
– Then, To damage anaerobic fermentation
• To avoid odor problems
 Cont…
The principal limitation of composting systems usually
are:
• Poor, uneven aeration
• Fluctuation of temperature of the biomass
• Unsuitability of the system to use of mycelial
microorganisms
• Few active contacts between microorganisms/enzyme
and substrate
• Little, if any, protection of the enzymes/microorganisms
from external agents
 Summary
• Aerobic composting system is preferable
• Composting is an effective way to manage organic wastes
• Composting promotes environmental sustainability by converting a
waste to a value-added product that improves our environment
• The fundamental conditions for composting are:
– Compost shall incorporate only allowed feedstock materials,
except for incidental residues that will not lead to
contamination;
– Compost shall undergo an increase in temperature for a
period of time to a level that minimizes pathogenic organisms;
– Compost shall release H20 and CO2 with a resultant loss of
volume and weight;
– Compost shall undergo a decrease in carbon to nitrogen ratio
and an increase in nutrient stability.
THANK YOU