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DS - W3 - Lecture 3

The document discusses logical equivalence, how to check for equivalence, tautologies and contradictions. It defines these concepts and provides examples to demonstrate them. It also outlines several common laws of logic including De Morgan's laws, identity laws, and distribution laws.

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16 views

DS - W3 - Lecture 3

The document discusses logical equivalence, how to check for equivalence, tautologies and contradictions. It defines these concepts and provides examples to demonstrate them. It also outlines several common laws of logic including De Morgan's laws, identity laws, and distribution laws.

Uploaded by

hasanrza799
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Structures (SE)

Ms. Talia Bilal


Logical Equivalence

Definition
Two proposition form are called logically equivalent if
and only if they have identical truth values for each
possible substitution of propositions for their
proposition variable.

The logical equivalence of proposition forms P


and Q is written
P≡Q
Equivalence Check

a. If in each row the truth value of P is the


same as the truth value of Q, then P and Q
are logically equivalent.

b. If in some row P has a different truth value


from Q, then P and Q are not logically
equivalent.
Example

• Prove that ¬ (¬p)≡ p

Solution

p ¬p ¬ (¬p)
T F T
F T F

As you can see the corresponding truth values of p


and ¬ (¬p) are same, hence equivalence is justified.
Tautology and Contradiction
Definition A tautology is a proposition form that is
always true regardless of the truth values of the
individual propositions that occur in it. A proposition
whose form is a tautology is called a tautological
proposition.

Definition A contradiction is a proposition form that is


always false regardless of the truth values of the
individual propositions that occur in it. A proposition
whose form is a contradiction is called a contradictory
proposition.
A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction is called a contingency.
Example
Show that the proposition form p¬p is a
tautology and the proposition form p¬p is a
contradiction.

p ¬p p ¬p p ¬p
T F T F
F T T F

Exercise: If t is a tautology and c is


contradiction, show that pt≡p and pc≡c?
De Morgan’s laws
De Morgan’s laws state that:
The negation of an and proposition is
logically equivalent to the or proposition in
which each component is negated.

The negation of an or proposition is logically


equivalent to the and proposition in which
each component is negated.
Symbolically (De Morgan’s Laws)

1. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q

2. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q
Truth Table For De Morgan’s Law

p q pq ¬(p  q) ¬p ¬q ¬p  ¬q

T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
Truth Tables For Compound Propositions

Operator Precedence
¬ 1
 2
 3
→ 4
↔ 5
Truth Table of (p v ~q) → (p  q)

p q ¬q (p  ¬q) pq (p v ~q) → (p  q)

T T F T T T
T F T T F F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F

• Construct a truth table for p v q → ¬r ?


Laws of Logic

1. Commutative laws
pq ≡ qp ; pq ≡ qp

2. Associative laws
p  (q  r) ≡ (p q)  r ; p(q r) ≡ (pq)r

3. Distributive laws
p  (q r ) ≡ (p  q)  (p  r)
p  (q  r) ≡ (p  q)  (p  r)
Laws of Logic

4. Identity laws
p  t ≡ p ; pc ≡ p

5. Negation laws
p  ¬p ≡ t ; p  ¬p ≡ c

6. Double negation law


¬(¬p) ≡ p

7. Idempotent laws
p  p ≡ p ; pp ≡ p
Laws of Logic

8. Universal bound laws


pt≡t ;pc≡ c

9. Absorption laws
p (p  q) ≡ p ; p  (p  q) ≡ p

10. Negation of t and c


¬t ≡ c ; ¬c ≡ t
Continue

De Morgan’s laws state that:


The negation of an and proposition is logically
equivalent to the or proposition in which each
component is negated.
1. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q

The negation of an or proposition is logically


equivalent to the and proposition in which each
component is negated.
2. ¬(pq) ≡ ¬p¬q
Example

1. John is six feet tall and he weighs at least


200 pounds.

2. The bus was late or Tom’s watch was slow


Solution

a) John is not six feet tall or he weighs less


than 200 pounds.

b) The bus was not late and Tom’s watch


was not slow.
Excercise

Q: Demonstrate that the following compound


propositions are logically equivalent

p  (q  r) ≡ (p  q)  (p  r)
Applying Laws of Logic

 Using laws of logic simplify the statement form.


p  [~(~p  q)]
 Solution:
 p  [~(~p)  (~q)] DeMorgan’s Law
 p  [p(~q)] Double Negative
Law
 [p  p](~q) Associative Law for

 p  (~q) Indempotent Law

This is the simplified statement form.


Applying Laws of Logic

 Using Laws of Logic, verify the logical equivalence.


~ (~ p  q)  (p  q)  p
Solution:
 (~(~p)  ~q) (p  q) DeMorgan’s Law
 (p  ~q)  (p  q) Double Negative Law
 p  (~q  q) Distributive Law inreverse
pc Negation Law
p Identity Law

Simplify ~ (~ (p  q)  ~ q) ?
Lecture Summary

• Logical Equivalence
• Equivalence Check
• Tautologies and Contradictions
• Laws of Logic

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