Structure and

role of nucleic
acid
Structure of DNA
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA for
ribonucleic acid.
DNA & RNA, like protein and polysaccharides are
macromolecules.
The basis building blocks for DNA & RNA are
nucleotides.
DNA & RNA are therefore polynucleotides.
Structure of DNA
Nucleotides are made from smaller components which
are:
 A phosphate
 A nitrogenous base
 A pentose sugar (5 carbon)
• There are five different nitrogenous bases found in
DNA & RNA.
• In a DNA molecule they are:
 Adenine (double ring)
 Thymine (single ring)
 Guanine (double ring)
 Cytosine (single ring)
Adenine and guanine are called purine bases
Thymine, cytosine and uracil are called pyrimidine
Structure of DNA
Structure of DNA
Structure of DNA
In an RNA molecule, the base thymine is
never found. Instead, RNA molecules contain
a base called uracil (single ring).
The five bases are often referred to by their
first letter : A, T, C, G, U.
The pentose sugar can either be ribose (in
RNA) or deoxyribose (in DNA). As their name
suggests, deoxyribose is almost the same as
Ribose, except that it has one less oxygen
atom in its molecule.
Structure of DNA
Polynucleotide
To form the polynucleotides DNA and RNA,
many nucleotides are linked together into a long
chain.
This takes place in the nucleus, during
interphase of the cell cycle.
It is made by linking alternating sugars and
phosphate together, with the base projecting
sideways.
This long polynucleotide of phosphate and sugar
form what is called a sugar-phosphate backbone.
The bond between a phosphate and a sugar
molecule is called a phosphodiester bond
The enzyme that catalyses this reaction is called
DNA polymerase.
Structure of DNA
Polynucleotide
Double helix
RNA molecules are made of a single
polynucleotide strand.
DNA molecules, however are made of two
polynucleotide strands lying side by side.
Each polynucleotide strand runs in the
opposite direction with respect to the other.
This results with it having a 3 ' and a 5 ' at each
end of the DNA molecule. ( ' Means prime)
The numbers refer to the position of the carbon
atom on the sugar phosphate backbone.
The two strands are held together by hydrogen
bonds between the bases.
Double helix
5'
3'

3'

5'
Double helix
 Adenine and guanine are larger molecules than
thymine and cytosine.
 In the DNA molecule, there is just enough room
between the two sugar-phosphate backbone for one
purine and one pyrimidine, so a purine in one strand is
always opposite a pyrimidine in the other.
 Therefore a purine always pairs up with a pyrimidine.
 In fact, the pairing is more precise than this. Adenine
always pairs with thymine, while cytosine always pair
with guanine.
 The bases that pair together are called complementary
bases.
 Between Adenine and thymine are two hydrogen
bonds.
 Between cytosine and guanine are three hydrogen
bonds.
Double helix
Double helix Crick

The DNA molecule does not

remain in a straight chain. Watson
It coils into a double helix
which is held in shape by
means of hydrogen bonds.
In 1953 James Watson and
Francis Crick, worked out the
basic structure of the DNA
molecule.
Double helix
The Code of Life…
The “code” of the chromosome is the
SPECIFIC ORDER that bases occur.

A T C G T A T G C G G…
 Genes
A length of DNA that codes for making one polypeptide is
called a gene.
It is thought that there are around 30,000 genes in our
cells.
How DNA condenses to form
chromosomes.
In a human cell, the total length of all the DNA is about
2m, but they are only 2nm wide. To fit this into the
nucleus, the DNA has to be coiled and supercoiled.
• The DNA first coils around proteins called histones. A
group of 8 histone proteins is called a nucleosome.
• Nucleosomes then group together to form a larger
structure called a solenoid.
• The solenoid then folds upon itself to form a condensed
chromatin which then folds again upon itself to form an
even more condensed structure called a chromosome.
DNA is wrapped tightly around histones
and coiled tightly to form chromosomes
The Watson and Crick and Model of replication
 In DNA replication the DNA molecule unwinds and unzips as
the hydrogen bond are broken between the bases. This is done
by the enzyme helicase.
 In the nucleus are free nucleotides to which two extra
phosphates have been added. The extra phosphates activate
the nucleotides, enabling them to take part in the reaction.
 The activated nucleotides then pair up with their
complimentary base on each of the old strands. An enzyme,
DNA polymerase, links the sugar and innermost phosphate
groups of next-door nucleotides together. The two extra
phosphates are released into the nucleus.
 This form two DNA molecules, each with a new strand and an
old strand.
 Since half of the original DNA is kept in each new molecule,
the process is called semi-conservative replication.
 DNA polymerase can only synthesize new DNA in a 5 ' to 3'
direction. It can only add a nucleotide to a free OH group.
 The Watson and Crick Crick and Model of replication
 When the DNA is being replicated, only a part unwinds first
and this portion is then replicated. As the enzyme helicase
continue the move up and unwind more DNA, only then
more DNA can be replicated.
 The whole DNA does not unwind first and then replicates
after.
 Replication of DNA in the 3' to 5' strand is described as
continuous replication. The strand that is synthesized
continuously is called the leading strand.
Replication of DNA in the 5 ' to 3' strand is described and
discontinuous DNA replication. The strand that is synthesized
discontinuously is called the lagging stand.
 Replication on the lagging strand is discontinuous because, you
have to wait until helicase moves up sufficient space, such that
there will be room for the DNA polymerase to work. This is
because DNA polymerase moves in the opposite direction as
helicase.
 In the leading strand, DNA polymerase moves in the same
 DNA
polymerase

DNA ligase joins

the okazaki
fragments

Helicase

DNA
polymerase
DNA controls protein synthesis
All chemical reactions in cells are controlled by
enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins. DNA is a code for
polypeptides and proteins and therefore controls
which protein is made. Thus DNA controls cell
activity.
Protein molecules are made up of strings of
amino acids. The shape and behavior of the
protein molecule depend on the exact sequence
of the amino acids, that is its primary structure.
DNA controls protein structure by determining
the exact order in which the amino acids join
together when proteins are made in a cell.
 3' 5'

The triplet code

The sequence of bases or nucleotide in a
DNA molecule is a code for the sequence
of amino acids in a polypeptide.
The diagram on the right, shows a short
length of a DNA molecule, just enough
to code for four amino acids.
The code is carried in the base sequence
of only one of the two strands of the
DNA molecule. In this case, assume that
this is the strand on the left in the
diagram. 5' 3'
Coding strand- sense strand
Non-coding strand – anti-sense strand
The triplet code
The code is a three-letter, or triplet, code. Each
sequence of three bases stands for one amino
acid. The sequence is always read in one
particular direction, that is from 3' to 5‘.
Reading from the top of the left hand strand,
code is:
 CAA, which stands for amino acid Valine
 TTT which stands for the amino acid lysine
 GAA which stands for amino acid leucine
 CCC, which stands for amino acid glycine
So this short piece of DNA carries the instruction
to the cell: ‘make a chain of amino acids in the
sequence valine, lysine, leucine and glycine’.
Features of the triplet code
The code is a triplet- Three bases code for one
amino acid. It is the minimum number which
could code for all 20 amino acids.
The code is degenerate-There is more than
one code for a particular amino acid. E.g.
GGA, GGC, GGG, GGU all code for the same
amino acid, which is glycine.
The code in punctuated- There are three triple
code that act as full stops. They do not code for
amino acids. They presumably mark the end-
point of the gene. E.g. UAA, UAG and UGA.
The start codon is AUG which codes for
methionine.
 Features of the triplet code
The code is universal-the same triplets code for the
same amino acids in all organisms (A few triplets
code in mitochondrial DNA and some ancient
bacteria differ from the universal code.
The code is non-overlapping- For example, an
mRNA sequence beginning AUGAGCGCA is not
read AUG/UGA/GAG…..(an overlap of two bases)
or AUG/GAG/GCG……(an overlap of one base).
(However, overlapping of certain genes does occur
in a few organism such as the bacteriophage
ΦX174)
mRNA codons
 DNA that
Euchromatin vs Heterochromatin
is not being used for transcription is mostly
coiled up compactly, and this produces the darkly
staining heterochromatin.
DNA that is being used for transcription is not so
tightly coiled, and this is present in euchromatin.
Protein synthesis
 In the nucleus, part of the DNA molecule which contains
the required gene, unwind and unzip by the enzyme
helicase as the hydrogen bonds are broken.
 Free activated RNA nucleotides pair up with the exposed
bases of the DNA strand containing the required gene.
 As the RNA nucleotides pair up with their complimentary
ones, their sugar-phosphate group are bound together to
form a sugar-phosphate backbone. The new molecule
which is formed is called a messenger RNA.
 The mRNA is synthesized by the enzyme RNA polymerase.
 It leaves the nucleus via a pore in the nuclear envelope.
 This process is called transcription.
 Every three base on the mRNA is called a codon, and is
complimentary to the triplet code in DNA.
Protein synthesis
In the cytoplasm are free amino acids and transfer
RNA (tRNA) molecules. At one end of the each tRNA
molecule is a site to which an amino acid can bind.
At the other end are three unpaired bases. The base
triplet is called an anti-codon. The triplet is
complimentary to the codons on mRNA.
Each tRNA bonds with a particular amino acid under
the control of a specific enzyme.
Meanwhile in the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a
ribosome. Ribosomes are made of ribosomal RNA
and protein and contain a small and a large subunit.
The mRNA binds with the small subunit. Six bases at
a time are exposed to the large subunit.
Protein synthesis
The first three exposed bases, or codon, is
always AUG. A tRNA with the complimentary
anti-codon, UAC, form hydrogen bonds with
the codon. This tRNA has the amino acid
methionine attached to it.
A second tRNA bonds with the next three
exposed bases. This will bring a different
amino acid. The two amino acids are held
closely together, and a peptide bond is formed
between them.
This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme
peptidyl transferase, which is found in the
small subunit of the ribosome.
Protein synthesis
The ribosome now moves along the mRNA,
exposing the next three bases on the
ribosome. A third tRNA brings a third
amino acid, which is joined to the second
one. The first tRNA leaves.
The polypeptide chain continues to grow
until a stop codon is exposed on the
ribosome. This is UAA, UAC or UGA.
This process is called translation. This is
because the DNA is being translated into an
amino acid sequence.
Introns and exons
In 1977 biologist were surprised to discover that
the DNA of eukaryotic gene is longer than is its
corresponding mRNA.
It should be the same length because the mRNA is
a direct copy.
It was discovered that immediately after the
mRNA is made, certain sections of the molecule
are cut out, before it is used in translation. The
sections of the gene that code for these unused
pieces of RNA are called introns.
The remaining sections of genes are coded for the
protein and are called exons. The exons are joined
up to form a processed mRNA.
In prokaryotes there are no introns.
Differences in protein synthesis between
eukaryotes and prokaryotes
 Eukaryote  Prokaryotes
Translation happen only  Translation occurs while
after transcription has transcription is still
occurred happening
Only one gene is transcribed  More than one gene is
to make a mRNA transcribed to form a
Only one ribosome attaches mRNA
to the mRNA. Therefore  More than one ribosome
only one polypeptide and may be attached to the
type is made same mRNA. Therefore
The mRNA is made up of more than one types of
polypeptides can be made
introns and exons. Therefore
 The mRNA only has exons.
the mRNA most be
processed before it is Therefore no processing
translated occurs before translation