DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - MEng 5052

Part 1 – Refrigeration
1.3. Vapor compression refrigeration cycles

1
 Refrigeration cycle
• A refrigeration system is a combination of components, equipment,
and piping, connected in a sequential order to produce the
refrigeration effect. Refrigeration systems that provide cooling for
air conditioning are classified mainly into the following categories:
A. Vapor compression systems. In these systems, refrigeration is carried out
through compression of refrigerant by a compressor(s). Vapor compression
is often called mechanical refrigeration, that is, refrigeration by
mechanical compression.
B. Absorption systems. In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is
produced by means of thermal energy input.
C. Gas expansion systems. In an air or other gas expansion system, air or
gas is compressed to a high pressure by compressors. It is then cooled by
surface water or atmospheric air and expanded to a low pressure. Because
the temperature of air or gas decreases during expansion, a refrigeration
effect is produced.

2
 REFRIGERATORS AND
HEAT PUMPS
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the
same devices; they differ in their objectives only.

The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the cold medium;
The objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.

3
 1.3. Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System
(VCRS)
• Vapor compression refrigeration systems are the most
commonly used among all refrigeration systems.
• In a vapor compression refrigeration system, refrigeration is
obtained as the refrigerant evaporates at low temperatures.
• Before the actual cycle is discussed and analyzed, it is
essential to find the upper limit of performance of vapor
compression cycles.
• This limit is set by a completely reversible cycle.

4
The Carnot refrigeration cycle
• Carnot refrigeration cycle is a completely reversible cycle.
• Hence is used as a model of perfection for a refrigeration cycle
operating between a constant temperature heat source and sink.
• It is used as reference against which the real cycles are
compared.
• As shown in Fig. the basic Carnot refrigeration system for pure
vapor consists of four components: compressor, condenser,
turbine and evaporator.
• Refrigeration effect (q4-1 = qe) is obtained at the evaporator.

5.
Figure. Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator and T-s diagram
of the reversed Carnot cycle.
6
• The low temperature, low pressure vapor is compressed isentropically in the
compressor to the temperature Tc.
• The refrigerant pressure increases from Pe to Pc during the compression
process (process 1-2) and the exit vapor is saturated.
• Next the high pressure, high temperature saturated refrigerant undergoes the
process of condensation in the condenser (process 2-3).
• The high pressure saturated liquid then flows through the turbine
and undergoes isentropic expansion (process 3-4).
• During this process, the pressure and temperature fall from Pc,Tc to Pe, Te.
• This low temperature and low pressure liquid-vapor mixture then enters the
evaporator completing the cycle.

7
• Thus as shown in Fig. the cycle involves two isothermal heat
transfer processes (processes 4-1 and 2-3) and two isentropic work
transfer processes (processes 1-2 and 3-4).
• All the processes are both internally as well as externally reversible,
i.e., net entropy generation for the system and environment is zero.
• Applying first and second laws of thermodynamics to the Carnot
refrigeration cycle,

8
now for the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3 and 4-
1, we can write:

where Te and Tc are the evaporator and condenser

temperatures, respectively, and,

the Coefficient of Performance (COP) is given by:

9
 Fig. Carnot refrigeration cycle represented in T-s plane

• It can be seen from the above expression that the COP of a Carnot refrigeration
system increases as the evaporator temperature increases and condenser
temperature decreases.
• This can be explained very easily with the help of the T-s diagram

10
• The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between TL
and TH.
• However, it is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles since processes 2-3 and 4-1
are not practical because
• Process 2-3 involves the compression of a liquid–vapor mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two phases, and process 4-1 involves the expansion of
high-moisture-content refrigerant in a turbine.
• Using a turbine and extracting work from the system during the isentropic expansion
of liquid refrigerant is not economically feasible.

Fig. Schematic of a
Carnot refrigerator
and T-s diagram of
the reversed Carnot
cycle.

11
• One way of achieving dry compression in Carnot refrigeration
cycle is to have two compressors –one isentropic and one
isothermal as shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Carnot refrigeration system with dry

compression 12
• Though with this modification the problem of wet compression can
be avoided, still this modified system is not practical due to the
difficulty in achieving true isothermal compression using high- speed
compressors.
• In addition, use of two compressors in place of one is not
economically justified.
• From the above discussion, it is clear that from practical
considerations, the Carnot refrigeration system need to be modified.
• Dry compression with a single compressor is possible if the
isothermal heat rejection process is replaced by isobaric heat rejection
process.
• Similarly, the isentropic expansion process can be replaced by an
isenthalpic throttling process.
• A refrigeration system, which incorporates these two changes is
known as Evans-Perkins or reverse Rankin cycle.
• This is the theoretical cycle on which the actual vapor compression
refrigeration systems are based.
13
Limitations of the reversed Carnot cycle

 Compression process requires a compressor that

will handle two phases
 Exit of the turbine involves the expansion of high moisture
content refrigerant
 Economically, it is not feasible

14
 THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration systems.
Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely before it is
compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.

This is the most widely

used cycle for
refrigerators, A-C
systems, and heat
pumps.

Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle.
15
• By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that the standard
vapor compression refrigeration cycle introduces two
irreversibility's:
1) Irreversibility due to non-isothermal heat rejection (process 2-3)
and
2) Irreversibility due to isenthalpic throttling (process 3-4).
 As a result, one would expect the theoretical COP of standard
cycle to be smaller than that of a Carnot system for the same heat
source and sink temperatures.
 Due to these irreversibility's, the cooling effect reduces and work
input increases, thus reducing the system COP.
 This can be explained easily with the help of the cycle diagrams
on T-s charts.
 Figure below shows comparison between Carnot and standard
VCRS in terms of refrigeration effect.
16
Fig. Comparison between Carnot and standard VCRS

17
• The heat extraction (evaporation) process is reversible for both
the Carnot cycle and VCRS cycle.
•Hence the refrigeration effect is given by:
For Carnot refrigeration cycle (1-2’’-3-4’):

For VCRS cycle (1-2-3-4):

Thus there is a reduction in refrigeration effect when the

isentropic expansion process of Carnot cycle is replaced by
isenthalpic throttling process of VCRS cycle.
This reduction is equal to the area d-4-4’-c-d (area A2) and is
known as throttling loss.
18
• It is easy to show that the loss in refrigeration effect increases as the
evaporator temperature increases and/or condenser temperature
decreases.
• A practical consequence of this is a requirement of higher refrigerant
mass flow rate.
The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle also increases when compared to
Carnot cycle.

Fig. Comparative evaluation of heat rejection rate of VCRS and Carnot

cycle 19
As shown in Fig. the heat rejection in case of Carnot cycle (1-2’’-
3-4’) is given by:

In case of VCRS cycle, the heat rejection rate is given

by:

Hence the increase in heat rejection rate of VCRS compared to

Carnot cycle is equal to the area 2’’-2-2’ (area A1).

This region is known as superheat horn, and is due to the

replacement of isothermal heat rejection process of Carnot cycle by
isobaric heat rejection in case of VCRS.

20
• Since the heat rejection increases and refrigeration effect
reduces when the Carnot cycle is modified to standard VCRS
cycle, the net work input to the VCRS increases compared to
Carnot cycle.
The net work input in case of Carnot and VCRS cycles are given
by:

As shown in Fig. the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle

is given by:

21
22
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible
(throttling) process to make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added benefits cannot
justify the added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance

An
ordinary
household The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-
refrigerator. compression refrigeration
cycle.
23
 Analysis of standard vapor compression refrigeration
system
• A simple analysis of standard vapor compression refrigeration
system can be carried out by assuming a) Steady flow; b)
negligible kinetic and potential energy changes across each
component, and c) no heat transfer in connecting pipe lines.
The steady flow energy equation is applied to each of the four
components.
Evaporator: Heat transfer rate at evaporator or refrigeration
capacity Qe is given by

24
25
• At any point in the cycle, the mass flow rate of refrigerant mr
can be written in terms of volumetric flow rate and specific
volume at that point, i.e.,

• We can also write, the refrigeration capacity in terms of

volumetric flow rate as

• is called as volumetric refrigeration effect (kJ/m3 of

refrigerant).

26
 Use of Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) charts:

Fig. Standard vapor compression refrigeration cycle on a P-h chart

• It is very convenient to use a pressure – enthalpy chart for
property evaluation and performance analysis.
• Using P-h one can easily find various performance
charts parameters known values of evaporator and condenser
from pressures.

27
 Actual Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle
An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one in
several ways, owing mostly to the irreversibility that occur in various
components, mainly due to fluid friction (causes pressure drops) and heat
transfer to or from the surroundings.
The COP decreases as a result of irreversibility. DIFFERENCES
-Non-isentropic
compression
-Superheated vapor at
evaporator exit
-Sub cooled liquid at
condenser exit
-Pressure drops in
condenser and
evaporator

Schematic and T-s diagram for the

actual vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle. 28
 Selecting The Right Refrigerant
• Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such
as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia, hydrocarbons
(propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the air-
conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in applications
above the freezing point).
• R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90
percent of the market.
• The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it
is toxic).
• R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C
systems in buildings.
• R-134a (replaced R-12, which damages ozone layer) is used in
domestic refrigerators and freezers, as well as automotive air
conditioners.
29
• R-22 is used window air conditioners, heat
pumps,
in air conditionersof commercial buildings,
refrigeration
and systems, andlarge
offers strong competition to ammonia.
industrial
• R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used
in commercial refrigeration systems such as those in supermarkets.
• CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by
destroying the protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the
greenhouse effect that causes global warming.
• Fully halogenated CFCs (such as R-11, R-12, and R-115) do the
most damage to the ozone layer.
• Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have been
developed.
• Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection
of a refrigerant are the temperatures of the two media (the
refrigerated space and the environment) with which the refrigerant
exchanges heat.
30
 Performance of cycle
• The performance of a standard VCRS cycle can be obtained by
varying evaporator and condensing temperatures over the required
range.
Effect of evaporator & condenser temperature on specific & volumetric
work:
• Figure shows that the specific work of compression decreases
rapidly as the evaporator temperature increases and condenser
temperature decreases.
• For a given condenser temperature, the volumetric work of
compression increases initially, reaches a peak, then starts
decreasing. This is due to the fact that as evaporator temperature
increases the specific work of compression decreases and the
specific volume at the inlet to the compressor also decreases.

31
• As a result, an optimum evaporator temperature exists at
which the volumetric work of compression reaches a maximum.

Figure Effect of evaporator & condenser temperature on specific &

volumetric work

32
 Modifications of the cycle
Subcooling and superheating
• It is possible to cool the refrigerant liquid in the condenser to a
few degrees lower than the condensing temperature by adding
extra area for heat transfer.
• In such a case, the exit condition of the condenser will be in
the subcooled liquid region. Hence this process is known as
subcooling.
Table Advantage and limitations of subcooling

33
• On the other hand, if the superheating of refrigerant takes
place due to heat transfer with the refrigerated space (low
temperature heat source) then it is called as useful
superheating.
• On the contrary, if the refrigerant vapor to become superheated
by exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows through
the connecting pipelines. It is called as useless superheating.
Table Advantage and Limitations of super heating

34
 Figure Modifications by Subcooling and superheating
Use of liquid-suction heat exchanger
• Some refrigeration systems use a liquid-to-suction heat
exchanger, LSHX, a counter flow heat exchanger which
subcools the liquid from the condenser with suction vapor
coming from the evaporator.

35
• Saturated liquid at point 3 coming from the condenser is
cooled to point 4 by means of vapor at point 6 being heated to
point 1. from heat balance,

36
Actual VCRS systems
• The cycles considered so far are internally reversible and no
change of refrigerant state takes place in the connecting
pipelines. However, in actual VCRS several irreversibilities
exist. These are due to:
– Pressure drops in evaporator, and condenser
– Pressure drop across suction and discharge valves of the compressor
– Heat transfer in compressor
– Pressure drop and heat transfer in connecting pipe lines

37
Fig. Actual VCRS cycle on P-h and T-s diagrams

38
• From performance point of view, the pressure drop in the
evaporator, in the suction line and across the suction valve has a
significant effect on system performance.
• This is due to the reason that as suction side pressure drop
– Increases the specific volume at suction,
– Increases the compression ratio
– Discharge temperature increase.
• All these effects lead to reduction in system capacity, increase in
power input and also affect the life of the compressor due to higher
discharge temperature.
• Hence this pressure drop should be as small as possible for good
performance.
• The pressure drop depends on
– The refrigerant velocity
– Length of refrigerant tubing and layout (bends, joints etc.).
39
40
41
 Multi-Stage Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Systems

• A single stage vapor compression refrigeration system has one

low side pressure (evaporator pressure) and one high side
pressure (condenser pressure).
• The performance of single stage systems shows that these
systems are adequate as long as the temperature difference
between evaporator and condenser (temperature lift) is small.
• However, there are many applications where the temperature
lift can be quite high.
• The temperature lift can become large either due to the
requirement of very low evaporator temperatures and/or due to
the requirement of very high condensing temperatures.

42
• For example, in frozen food industries the required evaporator
can be as low as –40oC.
• On the high temperature side the required condensing
temperatures can be very high if the refrigeration system is
used as a heat pump for heating applications such as process
heating, drying etc.
• However, as the temperature lift increases the single stage
systems become inefficient and impractical.
• For example, Fig. below shows the effect of decreasing
evaporator temperatures on T-s and P-h diagrams.

43
• It can be seen from the T-s diagrams that for a given condenser
temperature, as evaporator temperature decreases:

• i. Throttling losses increase

• ii. Superheat losses increase
• iii. Compressor discharge temperature increases
• iv. Quality of the vapor at the inlet to the evaporator increases
• v. Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor increases
As a result of this, the refrigeration effect decreases and work of
compression increases as shown in the P-h diagram.

44
Fig. (a): Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle
performance (T-s diagram)

45
Fig.1 (b): Effect of evaporator temperature on
cycle performance (P-h diagram)

46
• Similar effects will occur, though not in the same proportion
when the condenser temperature increases for a given
evaporator temperature.
• Due to these drawbacks, single stage systems are not
recommended when the evaporator temperature becomes very
low and/or when the condenser temperature becomes high.
• In such cases multi-stage systems are used in practice.
• Generally, for fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration
systems a single stage system is used up to an evaporator
temperature of –30oC.
• A two-stage system is used up to –60oC and a three-stage
system is used for temperatures below –60oC.

47
• Apart from high temperature lift applications, multi-stage
systems are also used in applications requiring refrigeration at
different temperatures.

• For example, in a dairy plant refrigeration may be required at

-30oC for making ice cream and at 2oC for chilling milk.
• In such cases it may be advantageous to use a multi-evaporator
system with
• The low temperature evaporator operating at –30oC and
• The high temperature evaporator operating at 2oC

48
• A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two
or more low-side pressures.
• Multi-stage systems can be classified into:
a) Multi-compression systems
b) Multi-evaporator systems
c) Cascade systems, etc.
• Two concepts which are normally integral to multi-
pressure systems are,
i. flash gas removal, and
ii. intercooling.
• Hence these concepts will be discussed first.

49
Flash gas removal using flash tank

• It is mentioned above that one of the problems with high

temperature lift applications is the high quality of vapor at the
inlet to the evaporator.
• This vapor called as flash gas develops during the throttling
process.
• The flash gas has to be compressed to condenser pressure.
• It does not contribute to the refrigeration effect as it is already
in the form of vapor.
• And it increases the pressure drop in the evaporator.
• One way of improving the performance of the system is to
remove the flash gas at an intermediate pressure using a flash
tank.
50
• Figure below shows the schematic of a flash tank and the
expansion process employing flash tank.
• A flash tank is a pressure vessel, wherein the refrigerant liquid
and vapor are separated at an intermediate pressure.
• The refrigerant from condenser is first expanded to an
intermediate pressure corresponding to the pressure of flash
tank, Pi(process 6-7).
• The saturated liquid at point 8 is fed to the evaporator after
throttling it to the required evaporator pressure, Pe (point 9)
using an expansion valve.
• In the absence of flash tank, the refrigerant condition at the
inlet to the evaporator would have been point 9'.
• Which has a considerably high vapor quality compared to
point 9.
51
52
 Intercooling in multi-stage compression
• As shown in the figures, in stead of compressing the vapor
in a single stage from state 1 to state 2’,
• If the refrigerant is compressed from state 1 to an
intermediate pressure, state 2, intercooled from 2 to 3 and
then compressed to the required pressure (state 4).
• Reduction in work input results.
• If the processes are reversible, then the savings in specific
work is given by the shaded area 2-3-4-2’ on P-v diagram.
• The savings in work input can also be verified from the P-h
diagram. On P-h diagram, lines 1-2-2’ and 3-4 represent
isentropes.
• Since the slope of isentropes on P-h diagram reduces (lines
become flatter) as they move away from the saturated vapor
line,
(h4-h3) < (h2’-h2) ⇒ (h2-h1)+(h4-h3) < (h2’-h1)
53
54
• Intercooling of the vapor may be achieved by using either a water-
cooled heat exchanger or by the refrigerant in the flash tank.
Figures (a) and (b) show these two systems.

55
Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and

•intercooling
Figures below a two-stage vapor compression
show refrigeration
system with
 Flash gas removal using a flash tank, and
 Intercooling of refrigerant vapor a water-cooled
by exchanger and flash tank. heat
The performance of this system can be obtained easily by
applying mass and energy balance equations to the individual
components.

56
57
58
From mass and energy balance of the flash tank:

59
From mass and energy balance across low-stage compressor,
Compressor-I:

where QI is the heat transferred by the refrigerant to the

cooling water in the intercooler
60
From mass and energy balance across high-stage
compressor, Compressor-II:

where mII is the mass flow rate of refrigerant through Compressor-II.

61
From mass and energy balance across condenser:

From the above set of equations, it can be easily shown that for
the
flash tank:

62
The above system offers several advantages,

a) Quality of refrigerant entering the evaporator reduces thus giving rise to

higher refrigerating effect, lower pressure drop and better heat transfer
in the evaporator
b) Throttling losses are reduced as vapor generated during throttling from
Pc to Pi is separated in the flash tank and recompressed by Compressor-
II.
c) Compressor discharge temperature is reduced considerably.

63
 Multi-Evaporator And Cascade Systems
•As mentioned above, there are many applications where
refrigeration is required at different temperatures.
•For example, in a typical food processing plant, cold air may
be required at –30oC for freezing and at +7oC for cooling of
food products or space cooling.
•Several multi-evaporator combinations are possible in
practice. Some of the most common ones are discussed below.
1. Individual evaporators and a single compressor with a
pressure-reducing valve
1. Individual expansion valves:
Figures below show system schematic and P-h diagram of a
multi-evaporator system that uses two evaporators at two
different temperatures and a single compressor.
64
65
Multi-evaporator system with single compressor and
individual expansion valves
66
The COP of the above system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow

rates through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:

67
 Enthalpy at point 1 (inlet to compressor) is obtained by applying mass and
energy balance to the mixing of two refrigerant streams, i.e.,

If the expansion across

h1
pressure regulating valve
(PRV) is isenthalpic, then
specific enthalpy h8 will
be equal to h6.
1.2. Multiple expansion
valves:
• Figures below show system schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-
evaporator with a single compressor and multiple expansion valves.
• It can be seen from the P-h diagram that the advantage of this system
is that the refrigeration effect of the low temperature evaporator
increases as saturated liquid enters the low stage expansion valve.
• Since the flash gas is removed at state 4, the low temperature
evaporator operates more efficiently.

68
Multi-evaporator system with single compressor and
multiple expansion valves
69
The COP of this system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow

rates through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:

70
Enthalpy at point 1 (inlet to compressor) is obtained by applying mass and
energy balance to the mixing of two refrigerant streams, i.e.,

h1

• If the expansion across PRV is isenthalpic, then specific enthalpy h7 will

be equal to h9.
• COP obtained using the above multi-evaporator systems is not much
higher compared to single stage system.
• Performance can be improved significantly if multiple compressors are
used in place of a single compressor.

2.Multi-evaporator system with multi-compression, intercooling

and flash gas removal

Figures below show the schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-evaporator

system which employs multiple compressors, a flash tank for flash gas
removal and intercooling.
71
72
Multi-evaporator system with multiple compressors and a
flash tank for flash gas removal and intercooling
73
 The COP of this system is given by:

where mI and me,II are the refrigerant mass flow

rates through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:

74
• mII is the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the high-stage
compressor
• mII can be obtained by taking a control volume which includes the
flash tank and high temperature evaporator (as shown by dashed
line in the schematic) and
• Applying mass and energy balance:
mass balance:

energy balance:

From known operating temperatures and evaporator loads (Qe, I and

Qe, II) one can get the mass flow rate through the high stage
compressor and system COP from the above equations.

75
3.Multi-evaporator system with individual compressors and multiple
expansion valves
• Figures below show the schematic and P-h diagram of a multi-evaporator
system which employs individual compressors and multiple expansion
valves.
The COP of this combined system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow rates

through evaporator I and II respectively. They are given by:

The inlet to the condenser (state 5) is obtained by applying mass and

energy balance to the process of mixing of refrigerant vapors from
Compressors I and II.
76
77
Multi-evaporator system with individual compressors
and multiple expansion valves
78
Limitations of multi-stage systems

• Though multi-stage systems have been very successful, they

have certain limitations. These are:
a) Since only one refrigerant is used throughout the system, the
refrigerant used should have high critical temperature and
low freezing point.
b) The operating pressures with a single refrigerant may
become too high or too low.
Generally only R12, R22 and NH3 systems have been used
in multi-stage systems
c)Possibility of migration of lubricating oil from one
compressor to other leading to compressor break-down.
The above limitations can be overcome by using cascade
systems.

79
 Cascade Systems
• In a cascade system a series of refrigerants with progressively lower
boiling points are used in a series of single stage units.
• The condenser of lower stage system is coupled to the evaporator of
the next higher stage system and so on.
• The component where heat of condensation of lower stage
refrigerant is supplied for vaporization of next level refrigerant is
called as cascade condenser.
• Figures below show the schematic and P-h diagrams of a two-stage
cascade refrigeration system.
• As shown, this system employs two different refrigerants operating
in two individual cycles.
• They are thermally coupled in the cascade condenser.
• The refrigerants selected should have suitable pressure-temperature
characteristics.
80
Fig. A two-stage cascade refrigeration system

81
Advantages of cascade
systems:
i. Since each cascade uses a different refrigerant, it is possible to select a
refrigerant that is best suited for that particular temperature range.

Very high or very low pressures can be avoided

ii. Migration of lubricating oil from one compressor to the other is prevented
Optimum cascade temperature:

For a two-stage cascade system working on Carnot cycle, the optimum

cascade temperature at which the COP will be maximum, Tcc.opt is given
by:

where Te and Tc are the evaporator temperature of low temperature cascade and
condenser temperature of high temperature cascade, respectively.

82
Cascading
improves the
COP of a
refrigeration
system.
Some systems
use three or
four stages of
cascading.

83