RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER THREE
 Course Outline:
 Introduction research method
 Data (primary and secondary data)
 Population and probability sampling
 Sample size determination
 Questionnaire design & piloting
 Choosing appropriate scales and measures
 Reliability and Validity
 Demographic profile of the respondents
 Method of data collection (Quan. & Qual study)
 Method of data analysis
 INTRODUCTION

 Research method refers to the plan and activities that will be

undertaken to accomplish the research objectives. This

chapter describes both the research design used in the study

and the research questions. The chapter will also discuss the

population under study, sampling techniques used, data

gathering method and analysis processes.

 DATA
 Data refers to all the information a researcher gathers for
his or her study.
 Primary & Secondary Data.
 Primary data refers to the information a researcher obtains
from the field.
 Secondary data refers to the information a researcher
obtains from books & casual interviews,
 Data may also classified as quantitative (numerical) or
qualitative (words, phrases).
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
BASIS FOR
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
COMPARISON
Meaning Primary data refers to the first Secondary data means data
hand data gathered by the collected by someone else
researcher himself. earlier.

Data Real time data Past data

Process Very involved Quick and easy
Source Surveys, observations, Government publications,
experiments, questionnaire, websites, books, journal
personal interview, etc. articles, internal records etc.

Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical

Collection time Long Short
Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to
researcher's needs. the researcher's need.

Accuracy and Reliability More Relatively less

 POPULATION
 It is not always convenient or possible to examine every member of
an entire population.
 Population is broader group of people to whom the researcher intend
to generalize the results of the study. i.e. if there are 15 million people
in Somalia, then the population size (N) is 15 million.
 Population is the total of all the individuals who have certain
characteristics and interest to a researcher.
 To represent the population well, a sample should be randomly
selected.
 SAMPLE

 The term sample, we mean a part of population chosen at random for

participation in the study.

 If the sample is not carefully selected, then it may not be truly

representative of the population.

 A sample is a subset of people, items, or events from a larger

population that you collect and analyze to make inferences.

 The objective of sampling is to estimate population values from

information contained in a sample.

 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLING

 Simple Random Sampling: involve the random selection of data from the

entire population so that each possible sample is equally likely to occur.

 Stratified Random Sampling: divides the population into smaller groups, or

strata, based on shared characteristics.

 Simple random sampling and stratified sampling are both types of probability

sampling where each sample has a known probability of being selected.

 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. The

researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study,

randomization is impossible.

 Non-probability sampling are included.

A- Convenience Sampling

B- Snowball Sampling

C- Expert Sampling
 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

 Use a sample size from a similar study. studies have already been

undertaken by other researchers.

 Use a Sample Size formula if the population is known N= N / (1 +

Ne2)

 Use a Sample Size Given a Confidence Interval and Width (unknown

population standard deviation)

HOW TO FIND A SAMPLE SIZE IF THE POPULATION IS
KNOWN

 you can use Slovin’s formula to figure out what sample size
you need to take, which is written as n = N / (1 + Ne 2) where
n = Number of samples, N = Total population and e =
Error tolerance (level)
Step 1: Figure out what you want your confidence level to
be.
 For example, you might want a confidence level of 95
percent (giving you an alpha level of 0.05),
 Step 2. Plug your data into the formula. In this
example, we’ll use a 95 percent confidence level with a
population size of 1,000.
n = N / (1 + N e2) =
1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 2) = 285.714286
Step 3: Round your answer to a whole
number (because you can’t sample a fraction of a
person or thing!)
285.714286 = 286
KREJCIE AND MORGAN'S SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION TABLE
HOW TO FIND A SAMPLE SIZE GIVEN A CONFIDENCE INTERVAL AND
WIDTH (UNKNOWN POPULATION STANDARD DEVIATION)

 41% of Jacksonville residents said that they had been in a hurricane.

How many adults should be surveyed to estimate the true proportion
of adults who have been in a hurricane, with a 95% confidence
interval 6% wide?

 za/2: Divide the confidence interval by two, and look that area up in
the z-table:
.95 / 2 = 0.475
The closest z-score for 0.475 is 1.96.
 E (margin of error): Divide the given width by 2.
6% / 2 = 0.06 / 2 = 0.03
Use the given percentage. 41% = 0.41. If you aren’t given, use 50%.
subtract from 1. 1 – 0.41 = 0.59
Step 2:Multiply by . Set this number aside for a moment.
0.41 × 0.59 = 0.2419

Step 3: Divide Za/2 by E.

1.96 / .03 = 65.3333333
Step 4: Square Step 3:
65.3333333 × 65.3333333 = 4268.44444
Step 5: Multiply Step 2 by Step 4:
0.2419 × 4268.44444 = 1,032.53671
= 1,033 people to survey.
 EXAMPLE
 Goyal et al. (2015) utilised AHP and prioritisation of corporate
sustainability. The study targeted 12 respondents.
 Lam et al. (2008) studied vocational learning applying the AHP
methods with 9 target respondents.
 Islam (2007) studied alternative MBNQA criteria weight in education,
the author has applied AHP and targeted respondents were 39
academicians.
 Fong et al. (2000) used AHP selection for contractors, the sample size
was 13.
 Huang et al. (2004) assess risk projects, authors applied AHP with a
sample of 26.
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

 A good questionnaire is one that accomplish the researcher’s

objectives. Guidelines for the construction of a questionnaire.
 The question must be asked in very simple and concise
 There is no escape route in the question
 Everybody should understand the question in the same manner.
 Avoid double-barreled questions.
 Each question should deal with only one dimension.
 DESIGN
 Preliminary Decisions:- Exactly what information is required?

Exactly who are the target respondents? What method of

communication will be used to reach these respondents?

 Decisions About Question Content:- Is the question really needed?

Is this question sufficient to generate the needed information? Can the

respondent answer the question correctly? Are there any external

events that might bias the response to the question?

 CHOOSING APPROPRIATE SCALES AND
MEASURES

 There are many thousands of validated scales that can be used in

research. Finding the right one for your purpose is sometimes difficult.
 Review literature in your topic area is the first place to start .
 What measures have been used by other researchers in the area?
 In choosing appropriate scales there are two characteristics that you
need to be aware of: reliability and validity. Both of these factors can
influence the quality of the data you obtain.
 RESPONDENTS
 Analyzes of demographic profile would enable the researcher to
select respondents best able to contribute on the research.
 Demographics are characteristics of a population such as gender,
age, education, profession, occupation, income level, and marital
status, are all typical examples of demographics that are used in
surveys.
 It is therefore understood that there is relationship between the
study of the respondents and their socio-demographic profile.
 DATA COLLECTION METHOD (QUAL. & QUAN
STUDY)

 Qualitative researchers try to gain a deeper understanding of

people’s experiences, perceptions, behavior and processes and the

meanings they attach to them.

 Quantitative research is a process where the data is being

collected and analyzed in a numeric form. Data is being analyzed

by using statistical tools like SAS, SPSS, Excel Stat, etc.

 PILOT STUDY
 Pilot study is a preliminary study conduct to assess whether the
research material is realistic and workable.
 Pilot study must answer a simple question: “Can the full-scale
study be conducted in the way that has been planned or should
some component(s) be altered?”
 Choose at least 10 participants from the target audience.
 Convincing funding bodies that the research team is competent
and knowledgeable
 BIAS OF SAMPLING
 A common cause of sampling bias lies in the design of the study or in

the data collection procedure, both of which may favor or disfavor

collecting data from certain classes or individuals or in certain

conditions.

 Sampling bias is also particularly prominent whenever researchers

adopt sampling strategies based on judgment or convenience, in which

the criterion used to select samples is somehow related to the variables

of interest.
 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
 Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures

something. If the same result can be consistently achieved by using

the same methods under the same circumstances, the measurement

is considered reliable.

 By calculating a correlation coefficient, the reliability of a test can

be quantified, correlation coefficients can range from 0.00 to 1.00

with 1.00 indicating perfect reliability. Also coefficient of 0.75 or

higher to indicate adequate reliability.

 VALIDITY
 Stodnick et al. (2008) define validity as the degree to which the
instrument fully assesses or measures the construct of interest.
 Kimberlin et al. (2008) indicate that validity is employed to know
the quality of a measuring instrument.
 The three broad categories of validity test are:-
 Face validity,
 Content validity, and
 Construct validity.
 VALIDITY
 Several steps should take to ensure the validity of the
questionnaire; the researcher should determine the
appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the instrument
for collecting data. With the help of experts, each interview
question should edit to remove emotionally-charged
terminologies, if any; double-barrelled questions, jargon and the
use of offensive language should avoid.
 The questions should be concise, easy to understand, and aimed at
securing valid and consistent information. The questionnaires
should also pilot tested.
 DATA ANALYSIS METHOD
 Data analysis is a process that relies on methods and techniques to
taking raw data, mining for insights that are relevant to the
researcher’s primary objectives, and drilling down into this
information to transform metrics, facts, and figures into research
questions.
 There are various methods for data analysis, largely based on two
core areas: quantitative data analysis methods and data analysis
methods in qualitative research.
 In this section, the researcher should state which method purposed
to analyze the data.
THANK YOU!