Chapter-3

Research Design &

Methodology
3.1 Research Design
• Research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted.
• It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
• It includes an outline of what the researcher will do
from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data & report
writing.

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The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being made?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What periods of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii.What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
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 Types of Research Design
Uses Types
• Formulate problems more precisely • Literature search
• Develop Hypotheses • Experience survey
Exploratory • Establish priorities for research • Analysis of select cases
Research • Eliminate impractical ideas • Interviews
• Clarify concepts • Focus groups
• Etc.
• Describe characteristics
Descriptive • Estimate proportion of people
Research who behave in a certain way • Longitudinal study
• Make specific predictions • Panel study
• Sample Survey
Causal • Provide evidence regarding causal
Research relationships
• • Laboratory experiment
Rule out all other explanations
• Field experiment

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• Components of Research Design:
(a) sampling design
• the method of selecting items to be observed;
(b) Method of data Collection
• Specifying how data are collected
(c) Analytical design
• how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed
(d) Reporting & Communication
• How the result of analysis are reported and
communicated.

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3.2 Sampling Design
• All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’
• When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost customarily lead to
selection of only a few items.
• The respondents selected should be representative of the total
population.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a
‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling
technique.’
• The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
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 Sample Design process
Define the Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Technique

Non-Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling 1. Convenience sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling 2. Judgmental Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling 3. Quota Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling 4. Snowball sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi stage sampling
Determine Appropriate
Sample Size

Execute Sampling
Design 7
 Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling is a completely random
method of selecting subjects. These can include
assigning numbers to all subjects and then using a
random number generator to choose random numbers.
• Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects
into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple
random sampling to choose members from groups.
• Systematic Sampling means that you choose every
“nth” participant from a complete list.
• For example, you could choose every 10th person listed.
• Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select
participants from a list that is too large for simple
random sampling.
• For example, if you wanted to choose 1000
participants from the entire population of the
Ethiopia, it is likely impossible to get a complete list
of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly
selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and randomly
selects from within those boundaries.

• Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of

techniques.
Types of non-probability sampling
• Convenience sampling: it is technique where samples are
selected from the population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher.

• Consecutive sampling: researcher picks a single person or a

group of a sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes
the results, and then moves on to another subject or group if
needed.

• Quota sampling: the researcher will need only a sample, not

the entire population. Further, the researcher is interested in
particular strata within the population. It helps in dividing
the population into strata or groups.
• Judgmental or Purposive sampling: in the
judgmental sampling method, researchers select the
samples based purely on the researcher’s knowledge
and credibility.

• Snowball sampling: helps researchers find a sample

when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this
technique when the sample size is small and not
easily available.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
• Sample design must result in a truly representative
sample.
• Sampling design should result in a small sampling
error.
• Sampling design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
• Sampling design should be in such a way that
systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
• Sampling should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
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 Sample Size
• The number of samples must be of an optimum size i.e.,
it should neither be excessively large nor too small.
• The followings are factors that determine sample size
– Whether the population is homogeneous or heterogeneous
( Standard deviation)
– Magnitude of error to be assumed
– Level of significance or confidence level
– Nature of study ( case study or statistical)
– Type of sampling technique to be used
– Availability of fund and time
• Methods of determining sample size
1. Use Census for small population ( < 200)
2. Use a sample size of similar study in the past
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3. Using formula to calculate sample size
Determination of Sample Size
• The following formula is used to determine sample
size for infinite population for S= standard deviation,
E= Acceptable magnitude of error and Z = confidence
level (Cochran, 1963)
2
 zs 
n   
 E 
• For finite number of population of N, the sample
size will be determined using

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 Illustration
Suppose a survey researcher, studying expenditures on
lipstick, wishes to have a 95 percent confident level (Z) and
a range of error (E) of less than $2.00. The estimate of the
standard deviation is $29.00.
1. what should be the sample size?
2. If the range of error is less than $4.00 instead of
$2.00, what should be the sample size
3. If the researcher want a confidence level of 99%
instead of 95%, what should be the sample size?
4. What will the sample size if the total population is
known to be 1000?
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 Solution
1) n= = 808
2) n= = 202
3) n= = 1400
4) n= = 444

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 Yamane Formula
•

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 Classifications of Sampling
Techniques
Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
Samples probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
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3.3 Variable Measurement
• To collect data, you need to have something to
measure
• Measurement is the process of assigning
numbers or scores to characteristics or
attributes of the objects or people of interest
• When we measure the attributes of an object,
we obtain a value that varies between objects
• There are four types of measurement scales

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 1. Nominal Scale
• The numbers serve only as labels or tags for
identifying and classifying objects.
• The numbers do not reflect the amount of the
characteristic possessed by the objects.
• Have no quantitative value
• Nominal scale is the least powerful level of
measurement
• Examples: Sex, Religion, country

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 2. Ordinal Scale
• A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to
objects to indicate the relative extent to which the
objects possess some characteristic.
• Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real
differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal.
• Examples: Students rank, Academic qualification,
Athletes’ finishing order

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 3. Interval Scale
• Numerically equal distances on the scale
represent equal values in the characteristic
being measured.
• Example: Temperature measurement, Marks
scored in Exam

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 4. Ratio Scale
• Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal,
and interval scales.
• It has an absolute zero point.
• It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
• All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio
measurement.
• Example: Age, Weight, Distance,

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3.4 Scaling Techniques
• Scaling describes the procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and
other concepts
• This can be done in two ways viz.,
i. making a judgement about some characteristic of
an individual and then placing him directly on a
scale that has been defined in terms of that
characteristic and
ii. constructing questionnaires in such a way that
the score of individual’s responses assigns him a
place on a scale.
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 A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

• Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus

objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative
terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.
• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus
objects. e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on
sweetness
• Non-comparative scales, each object is scaled independently of
the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.
• Respondent scales each stimulus object
independently of other objects e.g. How would you
rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1 to 10
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1. Paired Comparison Scaling
• A respondent is presented with two objects and
asked to select one according to some criterion.
• Example: If we have brands A, B, C and D, we
would have respondents compare
• A and B
• A and C
• A and D
• B and C
• B and D
• C and D
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2. Rank Order Scaling
• Respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
• Example: Rank the following soft-drinks from 1
(best) to 5 (worst) according to your taste
preference:
• Coca-Cola _____
• 7-Up _____
• Mirinda _____
• Pepsi-Cola _____
• Fanta _____
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 3. Continuous Scale

The following is an example of continues scale

• How would you rate Research Methodology
to other courses this semester?
The worst X X The Best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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 4. Likert Scale
• An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes.
• Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking
how strongly they agree or disagree with statements.
• Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”,
“uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree

Accounting is the most 1 2 3 4 5

interesting profession known
to me

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 3.5 Methods of Data Collection
• No one best way of collecting data.
• The decision depends on:
– Where the data reside: environment, files, people
– Resources and time available
– Complexity of the data to be collected
– Frequency of data collection
– Intended forms of data analysis
• Use multiple data collection methods (Triangulation)

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 Quantitative Vs Qualitative Data
1. Quantitative Approach
– Data in numerical form
– Data that can be precisely measured
• age, cost, length, height, area, volume,
weight, speed, time, and temperature

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2. Qualitative Data
• Data that deal with description
• Data that can be observed or self-reported, but
not always precisely measured
• Can provide “rich data” — detailed and widely
applicable
• It is labor intensive to collect
• Usually generates longer reports

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Which data do you want to collect?
If you: Then Use:
- want to conduct statistical analysis
- want to be precise Quantitative
- know what you want to measure

- want to cover a large group

- want narrative or in-depth information
- are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
- do not need to quantify the results

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 Sources Of Data

Primary Source: Secondary Source:

data is collected by the data is collected by other
researcher himself researchers
•Data is gathered through •Financial reports
• questionnaire, •Statistical data
• interviews, •files/records
• observations •computer data bases
•Industry or government reports
• Experiment etc.
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 Secondary Data
Advantages:
– Save time and money
– May be accurate when collected by government
agencies
– Very essential at the initial stage of the research
Limitations:
– May be out of date for what you want to analyze.
– May not have been collected long enough for
detecting trends.
– There may be missing information on some
observations
– The data may not be consistent/reliable? 35
 Primary data sources
1. Observation
See what is happening
– Physical actions
– Verbal behavior
– Expressive behavior
– Spatial relations and locations
– Temporal patterns
– Verbal and pictorial records

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Benefits of Observation
• Communication with respondent is not
necessary
• Data without distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide
supplemental evidence
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Limitations of Observation
• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
• Interpretation of data may be a problem (e.g.
misinterpretation)
• Not all activity can be recorded
• Only short periods can be observed
• Observer bias possible (e.g. selective
perception)
• Possible invasion of privacy

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Effective way Involves verbal
of gathering and non-verbal
information communications

2. INTERVIEW

Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through mail

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 2. Interviews
• Often semi-structured
• Used to explore complex issues in depth
• Unclear questions can be clarified during the
interview and changed for subsequent interviews
• Can provide evaluators with an intuitive sense of
the situation
• Can be expensive, labor intensive, and time
consuming
• Selective hearing on the part of the interviewer
may miss information that does not conform to
pre-existing beliefs
• Cultural sensitivity: e.g., gender issues 40
 The most common Useful to collect
data collection instrument quantitative and qualitative
information

3. Survey
Questionnaire

Should contain 3 elements:

1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
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 3. Surveys Questionnaire
Advantage:
• Excellent for asking people about: perceptions, opinions,
ideas
• Respondents can answer independently
• It is used to cover large population
Disadvantage
• Less accurate for measuring behavior
• Sample should be representative of the whole
• Big problem with response rates
• People may not accurately recall their behavior or may be
reluctant to reveal their behavior if it is illegal or stigmatized.
• What people think they do or say they do is not always the
same as what they actually do. 42
 Types of Questionnaires
Close Ended •harder to develop close ended questions
•easier to complete
•easier to analyze
•more efficient when working with large numbers
•Eg Likert sacle, multiple choice, numeric,
category
Open Ended •easier to develop open ended questions
•more difficult to complete: burdensome for people
to complete as a self-administrated questionnaire
•harder to analyze but provide a richer source of
data, interpretation of open-ended responses
subject to bias
•Eg Free response questions

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Methods of Administering Questionnaires
SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES

PAPER ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES QUESTIONNAIRES

MAIL IN-PERSON INSERTS FAX E-MAIL INTERNET KIOSK

DROP-OFF W EB SITE
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 4. Focus Groups
• Type of qualitative research where small
homogenous groups of people ( maximum 10) are
brought together to informally discuss specific topics
under the guidance of a moderator
• Purpose: to identify issues and themes, not just
interesting information, and not “counts”
• Focus Group is inappropriate when:
– language barriers are challenging
– evaluator has little control over the situation
– trust cannot be established
– free expression cannot be ensured
– confidentiality cannot be assured 45
 Advantages and Challenges of Focus Groups
Advantages Can be conducted relatively quickly and
easily; may take less staff time than in-
depth, in-person interviews; allow flexibility
to make changes in process and questions;
can explore different perspectives; can be
fun

Challenges Analysis is time consuming; participants not

be representative of population, possibly
biasing the data; group may be influenced
by moderator or dominant group members

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 5. Experimental Method
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Ability to manipulate • Artificiality of labs
Independent Variable • Non-representative
• Use of control group sample
• Control of extraneous • Expensive
variables • Focus on present and
• Replication possible immediate future
• Field experiments • Ethical limitations
possible

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 6. Word Association Tests
• A projective technique in which subjects are
presented with a word and asked to indicate
what other words come to mind.
• What comes to your mind when you hear the
following word?
– Soft drinks
• This technique may be used to develop an
associative network of words related to a focal
word
• Useful in brand name testing and product
concept testing.

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 7. Sentence Completion Tests
• A projective technique in which subjects are
given incomplete sentences and asked to
complete them with the word or phrase that
first comes to mind, e.g.
1. People who drive sports cars are __________
2. A man who drinks light beer is ____________
3. Sports cars are most liked by ______________
4. A sports car is ______________

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 Other data collection Tools
- scales (weight) - health testing tools:
- tape measure i.e. blood pressure
- stop watches - aptitude and
- chemical tests : achievement tests
i.e. quality of water -citizen report cards

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 Triangulation
• Triangulation of methods involves collection
of same information using different methods
– Triangulation of sources
• collection of same information from a variety of
sources
– Triangulation of evaluators
• collection of same information from more than one
evaluator

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 3.6 Research Proposal
Research Proposal is used
• To present the question to be researched and its
importance
• To discuss the research efforts of others who
have worked on related questions
• To suggest the data necessary for solving the
question
• To indicate how the proposed research is
carried out
• To foresee possible problems encountered 52
 Elements of Research Proposal
• Executive Summary
• Qualifications of Researcher
• Problem Statement
• Budget
• Research Objectives
• Schedule
• Literature Review
• Bibliography
• Importance of the Study
• Appendices
• Research Design
• Data Analysis
• Nature and Form of Results

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 Evaluating the Research Proposal
• Proposal must be neatly written in
appropriate writing style
• Major topics should be easily found and
logically organized
• Proposal must meet specific guidelines set by
the sponsor
• Technical writing style must be clearly
understood and explained

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Next is ch-4