Introduction to Sustainable

Engineering (22ETC25G)

Dr. GAUTAM S NAIR

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, NMIT
 UNIT -2- (7L+0T+0P)

Fundamentals of Life Cycle Assessment: Why and What is LCA, LCA Goal and

Scope, Life cycle inventory, Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Interpretation and

presentation of Results, Iterative Nature of LCA, Methodological Choices, LCI

Databases and LCA Softwares, Strength and Limitations of LCA

 LIFE CYCLE THINKING (LCT)

 Environmentally sustainable solutions can only be found by taking a life cycle approach

 The life cycle of a product consists of all the stages from raw material extraction to its disposal
 WHY AND WHAT IS LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)?

 LCA is an assessment tool for material products and services which provides us a structured
way to decide which alternative is more environmentally friendly

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines LCA as:

 “the compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential
environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle”

 Possible life cycle stages that can be considered in

LCA and typical inputs/outputs measured are shown here

 LCA is mainly focused on the environmental

impacts although it can also include both social and

economic impacts for a sustainability assessment

 WHY AND WHAT IS LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)?

 The strength of LCA is that it studies a whole product system and is an integrated
information tool preventing problem shifting to other life cycle stages, to other

substances, to other environmental problems, to other countries, and to the future

 For example:

 Compact fluorescent lamps reduce electricity consumption by about 75% but

can cause mercury pollution

 Bio-based fuels reduce greenhouse gas emissions but

contribute to air, water, and soil quality impacts in the

agricultural phase
 WHY AND WHAT IS LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)?

 Other characteristics of LCA tool:

 It is about products or more specifically about product functions, such as driving a car or filling a beverage

 It is based on science and is an engineering tool in the sense that technical systems are studied

 It covers a broad range of environmental issues. In many cases, single attributes such as percentage of
recycled content or locally source materials are used to identify a product as environmentally
profitable. However, these single attributes do not capture the total environmental picture – for
example, a local product sourced in an inefficient and polluting factory might have a larger environmental
impact than one produce far away in an efficient factory and transported to a site

 Since a whole life cycle is studied, it is not site specific and environmental impacts cannot be modeled at a
very detailed level

 It is an assessment to stress that value judgments are an intrinsic part of the procedure

 The assessment aims to highlight the importance of value judgments in the process or procedure being discussed.
"Value judgments" refer to subjective assessments or opinions about what is considered good, bad, right, or wrong.

 It is a quantitative tool but only as much as possible, and nonquantifiable aspects can be incorporated as
well

 It is also a method to structure the large amount of complex data and to facilitate comparisons across
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA also refers to a methodology on how life cycle studies are done and interpreted

 The ISO has produced a series of standards and technical reports on LCA (referred to as
14040 series) which specifies a structured framework and the rules, requirements, and
considerations
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Structure of LCA methodology is organized into the following different phases:

 Goal and scope definition - identifying the purpose and boundaries of the study,
assumptions, and expected output

 Life cycle inventory (LCI) - construction of the life

cycle model quantifying the energy use and raw

material inputs and environmental emissions

associated with each life cycle stage

 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) – assessing the

impacts on human health and the environment associated

with the LCI results

 Interpretation – analysis of the results of the inventory

and impact modeling, and presentation of conclusions and

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Structure of LCA methodology is organized into the following different phases:

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA is not a sequential process, starting with goal and scope definition and ending with
interpretation

 It is rather an iterative process, in which the goal and scope may be refined after inventory
analysis, impact assessment, or interpretation, and similarly the inventory analysis may be
refined after impact assessment or interpretation

 LCA is also not a prescriptive process. It involves various

assumptions and value-based judgments throughout the process and

it is important to be explicit in the reporting phase about what

assumptions and values were used

 It is very important to maintain transparency in reporting an LCA

study so that readers can see clearly what was done and decide if

they agree with the approach

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition

 The goal of an LCA study must be obviously stated and include:

 The intended application (what)

 The reason for carrying out the study (why)

 The intended audience (for whom)

 Whether the results are intended for comparative assertions (comparative judgments)
intended to be disclosed to the public (how)

 A well-defined goal helps to define the scope and boundaries of the study

 LCA standards do not define what the appropriate goals are but rather require that
an LCA goal be clearly stated

 A formal critical review of an LCA study can neither verify nor validate the goals
but rather evaluates if the study conforms to the stated goals
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition

 LCAs are often performed to do a “hotspot identification,” – to identify the parts of a

product system that contribute most to its environmental impact

 The results can help identify opportunities to reduce impacts through re-design

 Examples of specific evaluation LCAs:

 “What are the total potential life cycle environmental impacts of an office building?”

 “What are the environmental impacts related to manufacturing PVC windows and what
opportunities are there to reduce environmental impacts through changing
manufacturing processes?”
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition

 For example, a comprehensive goal statement for a PVC window could include the
following points:

 What – this LCA is a study of PVC window manufacturing

 Why – developed to understand the environmental impacts of the manufacturing

process

 Who – for use by manufacturers

 How – to integrate into a more comprehensive LCA

 Benefit – to manufacturers looking to understand and reduce the impact of

manufacturing

 Limits – the limitations of appropriate use of the LCA data (e.g., only for
manufacturers’ internal improvement or for publication for consumers to read)
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition

 LCA is also often used to compare two or more options and evaluate if one is
preferable (Comparative assertion)

 These LCAs are designed to inform decisions and are called a comparative assertion

 ISO standards require additional analysis and care when performing LCAs used to
make comparative assertions to help avoid inaccurate or misleading claims

 An example of a comparative LCA in the building industry is “Which structural

system is preferable: steel, concrete, or wood?”
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition

 The goal definition of an LCA study explains why the study is being done and helps
determine what will be included in the assessment. It sets the purpose and guides
the scope of the study

 The scope of an LCA requires the definition of what is included in and excluded
from the analysis and defines the parameters of the study

 ISO standard 14044 has specific requirements as to what must be included in the
scope definition
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 Establishing function, performance, and unit of analysis (functional unit)

 A product is defined by the function it provides and can also be defined by the
performance characteristics

 Defining the product to be studied is often not as simple as it might first appear,
especially when comparing alternative options

 An LCA typically identifies a unit of the product to analyze

 For a manufactured product such as a disposable cup, the unit might be one cup.
However, one could not compare a disposable cup to reusable cup as they are not
functionally equivalent
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 The term “functional unit” defines a unit of analysis that includes quantity,
quality, and duration of the product or service provided

 The choice of the functional unit and their reference flows directly influence the
calculations

 The reference flow is the amount of product that is needed to realize the
functional unit
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied (Functional unit and reference flows):

 When we compare two or more products that serve the same purpose, it is necessary that we clearly define what this
purpose is in a measurable way. For example, when we are comparing the disposable cup alternatives to the ceramic cup,
the purpose of the product is to hold coffee. How do we quantify this? How much coffee are we talking about? The different
cup alternatives may have different volumes which is something to consider beyond the volume and particularly, from a life
cycle perspective. It is important for sure to consider that the ceramic cup can be reused. In other words, the ceramic cup
has a longer use phase and will ultimately hold way more coffee in its lifetime than a disposable cup. Although the ceramic
cup will hold more coffee and will be used for longer it needs to be washed repeatedly. How does all that water and soap to
wash the cup compared to disposable plastic cup or a disposable paper cup which doesn’t need to be washed and what
about all the plastic or paper waste per cup volume for the disposable cups?
 Coming back to the question of quantifying the purpose of a cup, in LCA, we use a functional unit to facilitate such
comparisons.
 Functional Unit – A measure of the function or a purpose of the product. In performing an LCA, we as the practitioners
decide what the most appropriate functional unit will be. The FU should serve as a reference according to which all the
environmental exchanges or inputs within our system boundaries can be scaled.
Coming back to coffee cup example,
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope
as per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied (Functional unit and reference flows):

 Lets say FU = 200 ml of coffee served. We can then compare our disposable plastic,
paper and ceramic cups according to this FU.
 How do we account for the fact that the plastic and paper cups are disposable and
the fact that the ceramic cup is reusable. Since the ceramic cup will be used over
and over again lets say 1000 times we will need to divide the total inputs for the
ceramic cup in our product system by the number of cups served in its lifetime.
 In other words, we need to scale our ceramic cup inputs to the functional unit of
200 ml of coffee served. Okay so what about the differences in volumes between
the cups. I hear you ask. If each cup holds a different volume then we need to
adjust the factor by which we multiply the inputs. What we end up is a separate
reference flow for each of the products that we compare
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope
as per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied (Functional unit and reference flows):

 Another keyword: Reference flow
 It is the quantity of the specific product alternative that we need to be able to fulfil the functional unit. So
lets look at this example more closely: We have a disposable plastic cup of 150 ml used once, a reusable
ceramic cup of 250 ml used 1000 times and a disposable paper cup of 200 ml used once. If our functional unit
is 200 ml of coffee served then we will scale all the inputs for each alternative accordingly. We multiply by
1.33 for disposable plastic cup to go from 150 ml to 200 ml, we multiply by 0.8 to go from 250 to 200 for our
ceramic cup, But don’t forget the ceramic cup will be used 1000 times. So we need to divide by 1000 or in
other words multiply all the inputs by 0.0008. Finally the disposable cup is multiplied by 1.

 At this point, you should realize that LCA is completely linear. Linearity in LCA means two things. First, LCA is
a linear in the sense that we can proportionally scale the reference flows without considering nonlinear
phenomena such as economies of scale. In fact LCA was designed this way to make comparisons between
different products easy to apply. LCA is linear in another sense and this comes back to how the life of the
product is considered. The product system we consider starts from the processes that are necessary to create
the product in the first place through to the product’s end of life or disposal. In other words, from cradle to
grave. In this sense, LCA is not circular or cyclic but rather aligned from beginning to end. Its linear.
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 The functional unit of a coffee cup might then be to deliver 200 ml (quantity) of 80°C
liquid with insulation to be able to be held in hand (quality) up to twice in one day for
ten years (duration)

 If an LCA study were based upon the assumption that 3,000 paper cups are used over
ten years, the environmental impacts of one paper cup would be multiplied by 3,000 to
compare with the equivalent single ceramic cup (provided one assumes that a ceramic
cup can last that long)
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 LCA results for two different products can thus be comparable if analyzing
functionally equivalent systems

 Light bulbs produce light, so in a comparison of two different light bulbs, the functional
unit must be phrased in terms of light

 To compare CFL to an incandescent lamp, an appropriate function would be

performance based, that is, the amount of light needed to illuminate a standard room
(such as 15 square meters with 1,000 lumen for 1 hour)

 Light bulb functional unit might be 1,000,000 lumen-hours of light

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The product to be studied:

 Assuming a 60-W incandescent lamp with 900 lumens and a lifetime of 1,000 hours and
a 15-W CFL lamp with 900 lumens and 8,500 lifetime hours and if the functional unit is
20 million lumen hours, then we will be comparing approximately 22 incandescent
lamps with 3 CFL lamps

 A functional unit involves answering the questions “‘what,’ ‘how much,’ ‘for
how long/how many times,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how well’?”

 For example, a comparison of outdoor paints may be based on the functional unit:
complete coverage (what) of 1 m2 (how much) primed outdoor wall (what) for 10 years
(for how long) in Mauritius (where) in a uniform color at 99.9% opacity (how well?)
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as
per ISO Standards

 The system boundary:

 What is excluded from and included in the analysis (which unit processes are part of the
system studied)

 LCA requires a clear definition of the system boundaries (which industrial and
natural processes are to be included and excluded)

 While the purpose of an LCA study is theoretically a comprehensive evaluation,

in reality, the preparation of an LCA requires that choices be made about
which processes to include in the study, which inputs and outputs to measure
or estimate, which environmental impacts to evaluate, and which data sources
to use

 The system boundary must be defined to support the stated goal and scope of
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope as per ISO Standards

 The system boundary:

 Some LCAs only analyze impacts from cradle-to-gate, while others include the whole life cycle (cradle-
to-grave)

 Cradle-to-gate analysis: This approach considers the environmental impacts from the beginning of the product's life cycle
(cradle) to the point it leaves the manufacturing facility (gate). It includes processes such as raw material extraction,
transportation, manufacturing, and packaging. However, it excludes the use, disposal, and end-of-life stages of the
product.

 Cradle-to-grave analysis: This approach takes into account the entire life cycle of the product, from its creation (cradle)
through its use, disposal, and potential recycling or final disposal (grave). It considers the impacts at every stage,
including raw material extraction, manufacturing, distribution, use, and disposal.

 Often LCA studies will exclude the following processes:

 Manufacture of fixed equipment (the factory)

 Manufacture of mobile equipment (trucks)

 Hygiene-related water use (toilets and sinks for workers)

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope
as per ISO Standards

 The system boundary:

 When known LCA stages are excluded, the goal of the LCA must be carefully
assessed to ensure that the limited scope is still adequate to meet the
requirements of the goal

 A system boundary diagram is a graphic representation of the scope of an

LCA, and it should clearly indicate what is included in the LCA analysis and
which inputs and outputs have been tracked
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope
as per ISO Standards

 Methodological choices:

 Including assumptions for multifunctionality and impact assessment and

interpretation methods

 It highlights the importance of aligning the impact assessment with the

objectives of environmental protection or preservation

 Impact assessment categories represent specific environmental factors that

may be affected, such as climate change, human health, ecosystem quality,
resource depletion, etc.

 These impact categories are used to evaluate and quantify the potential
environmental impacts of a product across different stages of its life cycle
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA scope
as per ISO Standards

 Methodological choices:

 To ensure the relevance and effectiveness of the impact assessment, it is crucial

that the chosen impact categories are meaningful and directly linked to the
environmental factors that are considered valuable and in need of protection

 The chosen impact categories determine the parameters for which data will be
collected during inventory analysis
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCA Goal and Scope Definition – Summary of key items to be defined in LCA
scope as per ISO Standards

 Level of detail in the study:

 Sources of the data, data-quality requirements, and type of critical review (if any)

 LCA standards permit a wide range of analysis methods, data sources, and
assumptions

 The standards require that these details be clearly defined within the LCA
report to enable those reading and interpreting the data to understand the
strengths and weaknesses of the study

 The goal and scope definition are taken into account when the results of the
study are interpreted

 They are constantly reviewed and refined during the process of carrying out an
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 “The phase of life cycle assessment involving the compilation and

quantification of inputs and outputs, for a given product system throughout its life cycle.”

 Includes the following:

 1. Construction of the flow model of the technical system on the basis of the unit
process according to the system boundaries decided in the goal and scope definition

 Meaning: Process of creating a model that represents the flow of materials, energy, and
information within a technical system. This model is constructed based on the specific
unit processes identified within the system boundaries, which were determined during
the goal and scope definition of the analysis. The flow model helps visualize and
understand how inputs and outputs move through the system, allowing for a more
comprehensive assessment of the system's environmental impacts and potential areas
for improvement
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 1. Construction of the flow model of the technical system on the basis of the

unit process according to the system boundaries decided in the goal and scope definition

 What is unit process?

 A unit process is the “smallest element considered in LCI analysis for which input

and output data are quantified”

 It refers to a specific step within a product's life cycle that is analyzed to assess its
environmental impacts. It can include activities such as raw material extraction,
manufacturing processes, transportation, use phase, and end-of-life management. The
purpose of conducting an LCI is to quantify and evaluate the inputs (e.g., energy, materials)
and outputs (e.g., emissions, waste) associated with the entire life cycle of a product, from
raw material extraction to disposal

 For example, if we consider the life cycle of a mobile phone, unit processes could include the extraction
of raw materials like metals and minerals, the manufacturing of components, assembly, packaging,
transportation, use phase, and eventual disposal or recycling
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 1. Construction of the flow model of the technical system on the

basis of the unit process according to the system boundaries decided

in the goal and scope definition

 The unit processes are described in quantitative terms as having inputs and outputs

 The LCI is then the compilation of the different unit processes within the system under study

 All unit processes of an LCI model belong to the technosphere (i.e., everything that is
intentionally “man-made”)

 Environmentally relevant flows or elementary flows (use of limited resources and emissions
of harmful substances) go beyond the boundary between the technosphere and the
ecosphere (or the “the environment” or “nature” i.e., which is not man-made)

 Meaning: When assessing the environmental impacts of a product or system, it is important to consider
not only the manmade activities and processes but also the consequences and interactions with the natural
environment. This includes considering the depletion of non-renewable resources and the emissions of
substances that can have detrimental effects on ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 2. Planning and data collection for all the activities in the product system

 A number of sources are needed to collect data for the LCI

 Data classified into: Primary data (on-site measurements, interviews, questionnaires,

and so on) and Secondary data (databases, literature, statistics, industry data reports,
specifications, and best engineering judgment)

 Data can also be classified by how they were created – site specific, modeled,
calculated or estimated, non-site specific (i.e., surrogate data or vendor data)

 In the collection of data, we also distinguish between unit processes belonging to

the foreground and background system
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 2. Planning and data collection for all the activities in the product system

 The foreground system contains unit processes specific to the product system
being studied and it is largely modeled using primary data
 The foreground system includes processes such as raw material extraction, manufacturing,
transportation, use phase, and end-of-life management. Detailed data is collected for the foreground
system, often through site-specific measurements or specific industry data

 Those processes that are not specific to the product system and are indirectly
linked to the foreground system but still contribute to its overall environmental
impacts form part of the background system
 The background system includes processes such as energy generation, material production, and waste
treatment, among others. Data for the background system is often obtained from databases, industry
averages, or regional statistics
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 3. Calculation of the amount of resource use and pollutant emission of the

system in relation to the functional unit

 An LCI can be complicated by the fact that in certain technical processes, multiple
products are generated simultaneously, and it becomes necessary to allocate or divide
the environmental impact associated with the process among these different products.
This allocation helps determine the environmental load or burden attributed to each
specific product

 For example, let's consider a hypothetical scenario of an oil refinery that produces both gasoline
and diesel fuel. During the refining process, various inputs, such as crude oil, energy, and
chemicals, are used. The refining process also generates emissions, waste products, and other
environmental impacts. In this case, the environmental impact of the refining process needs to
be allocated or partitioned between the gasoline and diesel fuel products.

 Handling of multifunctional processes is a challenge in LCA

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 3. Calculation of the amount of resource use and pollutant emission of the system in
relation to the functional unit

 The assumption of linear technology is a significant limitation in life cycle inventory (LCI)
analysis, even though it makes the calculations and data collection more manageable

 Linear technology refers to the assumption that the production processes and
transformations involved in the life cycle of a product or system can be represented as a
linear sequence of well-defined and easily quantifiable steps. It assumes that the inputs and
outputs of each process can be clearly identified and measured.

 While this assumption simplifies the calculations and data collection in LCI, it may not
accurately capture the complexities and interactions present in real-world systems

 For example, if a product's life cycle includes recycling or reuse of materials, the linear assumption
may not capture the environmental benefits or impacts associated with these activities. Similarly, if
co-products are generated during a production process, the linear approach may not fully account for
the environmental burdens and benefits of these co-products
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

 The result of an LCI is a list of quantified amounts of different materials and
resources used throughout the entire life cycle of a product or system

 These quantities are associated with the production of the desired function that the
product provides

 ISO recommends classifying the inventory data into four categories:

 Inputs (energy, materials, etc.)

 Products (including co-products and waste)

 Emissions (to air, water, and soil)

 Other environmental aspects

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 LCIA turns the inventory results into more environmentally relevant information (or
impact category indicators)

 And at the same time it aggregate the information from the LCI in fewer parameters

 LCI results can contain hundreds of different items many of which require expert
knowledge to understand their importance

 LCIA does estimations of natural resource, natural environment, and human health
impacts using knowledge and models from environmental science

 LCIA is in practice largely automated by LCA software but the underlying principles
must be understood to properly interpret the results
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 While the unit process is the central element of the inventory analysis, the central
element in impact assessment is the impact category

 ISO defines it as “a class representing environmental issues of concern to which LCI

analysis may be assigned,” such as climate change or toxicity

 A category indicator is a quantifiable representation of an impact category

 The environmental mechanism is the system of physical, chemical, and biological

processes for a given impact category, linking the LCI analysis results to category
indicators

 The impact assessment categories should link the potential impacts and effects to the
entities that we aim to protect

 The commonly accepted areas of protection are natural resources, natural

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Example:

 Let's consider a proposed construction project for a new highway. In the impact assessment
process, several impact categories could be identified, such as:

 Air Quality: This category focuses on the potential effects of the project on air pollution and air quality

 Noise Pollution: This category addresses the potential noise levels generated by the project and their impact
on surrounding communities

 Biodiversity: This category assesses the potential impacts on local flora and fauna due to habitat destruction
or fragmentation

 Traffic Congestion: This category examines the potential effects on traffic flow and congestion in the area
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Example:

 For each of these impact categories, specific category indicators can be defined:

 Air Quality: Category indicators could include measurements of particulate matter (PM) concentration,
nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, or carbon monoxide (CO) levels

 Noise Pollution: Category indicators might include decibel levels or the number of affected households
located within a specific noise threshold

 Biodiversity: Category indicators could involve the assessment of species richness, habitat loss, or the
presence of endangered species

 Traffic Congestion: Category indicators might include metrics such as average travel time, vehicle
occupancy, or the level of service of roads
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 1. Selection of impact categories as per the scope definition

 For each impact category, a representative indicator is chosen together with an

environmental model that can be used to quantify the impact of elementary flows on
the indicator

 An elementary flow refers to a specific material or energy input or output associated

with a product, process, or activity. It represents a distinct flow of a substance or
resource that enters or leaves the environment

 Typically done by choosing an already existing LCIA method

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 1. Selection of impact categories as per the scope definition

 Example:

 LCA study on car manufacturing process; Impact category – Global warming potential (GWP);
Elementary flows – CO2 emission during the production

 To quantify the impact of CO 2 emissions on the GWP indicator, an environmental model is used. This

model considers the global warming potential of CO 2 and its ability to contribute to climate change. It

may take into account factors such as the emission amount, the atmospheric lifetime of CO 2, and its
radiative forcing potential

 By quantifying the contribution of CO 2 emissions, the environmental model can estimate the overall
impact of the car manufacturing process on the GWP indicator. This information allows decision-
makers to assess and compare the environmental performance of different products or processes
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 2. Classification of elementary flows from the inventory

 By assigning them to impact categories according to their ability to contribute by impacting the
chosen indicator

 Typically done automatically by LCI databases and LCA software

 Example:

 LCA study of a beverage manufacturing process; Impact category – Water consumption; Elementary
flows are as follows:

 Freshwater extraction from a local river

 Water consumption during the manufacturing process (e.g., cleaning, rinsing, mixing)

 Discharge of wastewater after production

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 2. Classification of elementary flows from the inventory

 Example (Contd.):

 Next, the chosen indicator for the impact category of "Water Consumption" is identified. For example,
the indicator could be "Water Scarcity," which quantifies the potential impact of water consumption
on water availability in a specific region

 To classify the elementary flows, they are evaluated based on their ability to contribute to the chosen
indicator. In this case, the elementary flow "Freshwater extraction from a local river" would have a
higher potential to impact "Water Scarcity" compared to the other flows

 Therefore, the elementary flow "Freshwater extraction from a local river" would be assigned to the
impact category of "Water Scarcity" as it has a direct relevance to the indicator. The other flows, such
as "Water consumption during the manufacturing process" and "Discharge of wastewater," may be
assigned to different impact categories based on their respective indicators, such as "Water Quality"
or "Eutrophication”
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 3. Characterization using environmental models for the impact category

 To quantify the ability of each of the assigned elementary flows to impact the indicator of the
category

 The resulting impact scores are expressed in a common metric for the impact category

 This allows aggregation of all contributions into one score, representing the total impact that the
product system has for that category

 The collection of aggregated indicator scores for the different impact categories constitutes the
characterized impact profile of the product system

 Typically done automatically by LCA software

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 3. Characterization using environmental models for the impact category

 Example:

 Previous example of a beverage manufacturing process and focus on the impact category of "Water
Scarcity" with the indicator of "Water Consumption."

 To characterize the impact of the assigned elementary flow, such as "Freshwater extraction from a
local river," an environmental model specific to water scarcity is used

 This model considers factors such as regional water availability, water stress levels, and the potential
consequences of water consumption on local ecosystems or human water supply

 The model quantifies the impact of the elementary flow and generates an impact score that represents
its contribution to the "Water Scarcity" indicator. This impact score is typically expressed using a
common metric, such as a numerical value or unit, allowing for easy comparison and aggregation.
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 3. Characterization using environmental models for the impact category

 Example (Contd.):

 Similarly, the other assigned elementary flows, like "Water consumption during the manufacturing
process" and "Discharge of wastewater," are characterized using appropriate environmental models
specific to their respective impact categories.

 Once all the assigned elementary flows have been characterized, their impact scores within each impact
category can be aggregated. This aggregation process combines the individual impact scores into a
single score for each impact category, representing the total impact of the product system in relation to
that category

 After aggregating the impact scores of the assigned elementary flows related to water consumption, we
obtain a single score for the "Water Scarcity" impact category. This score represents the overall impact
of the beverage manufacturing process on water scarcity
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 4. Normalization

 Used to inform about the relative magnitude of each of the characterized scores for the different impact categories by
expressing them relative to a common set of reference impact

 It is a calculation of the magnitude of the category indicator results relative to a reference

 Often the background impact from society is used as a reference

 The result of the normalization is the normalized impact profile of the product system in which all category indicator
scores are expressed in the same metric

 Optional step

 Example:

 1 kg CO2  1 kg CO2 – equivalent

 1 kg CH4  25 kg CO2 – equivalent

 1 kg N2O  298 kg CO2 – equivalent

 By assigning an equivalent, we can compare all these inputs to each other

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

 Consists of five elements (out of which first three are mandatory):

 5. Grouping and weighting

 Supports comparison across the impact categories

 Grouping is the assignment of impact categories into one or more sets

 Weighting, using weighting factors for each impact category, gives a quantitative expression of
how severe it is relative to the other impact categories

 The weighting allows aggregation of all the weighted impact scores into one overall environmental
impact score for the product system

 This can be useful in decision-making when LCA results are used together with other information
like the economic costs of the alternatives

 This is an optional step

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Interpretation and Presentation of Results

 Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or
impact assessment, or both, are evaluated in relation to the defined goal and scope in
order to reach conclusions and recommendations

 Includes the following steps:

 Identification of major burdens and impacts

 Identification of “hotspots” in the life cycle

 Sensitivity analysis (Evaluating how sensitive the analysis is to changing assumptions or choices to
assess the reliability of the final results and conclusions)

 Evaluation of LCA findings and final recommendations

 Critical thinking and careful evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the LCA
are essential during the interpretation phase in order for the conclusions, limitations,
and recommendations resulting from an LCA to be meaningful
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Interpretation and Presentation of Results

 A minimum of three evaluation methods to be summarized and adapted:

 Completeness check

 Evaluating the LCA information and data to ensure that it is complete: that
there are no missing emissions to environment. If items are found to be
missing, new data and analysis are required

 Sensitivity check

 Evaluating how sensitive the analysis is to changing assumptions or choices to

assess the reliability of the final results and conclusions. This might lead to the need
to obtain better data in order to understand key aspects of the LCA

 Consistency check:

 Evaluating the study to ensure the analysis is internally consistent and matches the
established goal and scope
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Interpretation and Presentation of Results

 When interpreting data, it's important to consider the goal and scope of the analysis and respect
any limitations set by factors like location, time, or technology

 Contribution analysis helps determine the impact of different stages or groups of processes on the
overall results

 It identifies the inventory data or impact indicator that has the most significant influence

 An example of a contribution analysis to climate change for the two types of lamps is given here. The
results show that the main contribution of emissions occurs during electricity production for the use stage
of the lamp
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Interpretation and Presentation of Results (Summary)

 This step of LCA involves interpreting the results of the impact assessment

 This includes analyzing the magnitudes and patterns of impacts, identifying

hotspots or areas of significant environmental burdens, considering uncertainties
and limitations in the assessment, and drawing conclusions for decision-making

 After we gained a lot of insights into our product or service, we can draw
conclusions from it, such as:

 How high are the emissions of the product or service?

 How does it compare to other products in our portfolio?

 What are the biggest leverages to reduce the impact of our product?

 Can we be more efficient in manufacturing it?

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Iterative Nature of LCA

 LCA is an iterative process; not a sequential process

 Each phase of the methodology provides feedback to the previous phases of the

study and helps target the next iteration of the LCA

 During the interpretation phase of a study, as well as throughout the inventory analysis and
impact assessment stages, sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are conducted

 In simpler terms, sensitivity analysis looks at how changes in certain variables/assumptions affect
the study's outcomes. It helps us understand which factors have the most influence and need closer
attention

 Uncertainty analysis focuses on assessing the range of possible outcomes due to the inherent
uncertainties in the data or assumptions used in the study

 These analyses help identify the important variables or assumptions that have the most
significant impact on the study's results, as well as the data that carry the largest uncertainties
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Iterative Nature of LCA

 The first iteration is often a screening that covers the full life cycle, but in terms of inventory
data largely based on easily accessible data from available databases

 In the screening phase of LCA, let's consider the evaluation of a smartphone. The LCA would cover the
entire life cycle of the phone, from raw material extraction to manufacturing, use, and disposal. During
this phase, the inventory data used to assess the environmental impacts would primarily come from
easily accessible databases

 Once the impact assessment is conducted using the available data, the results would highlight the
parts of the smartphone's life cycle that contribute the most to environmental impacts

 However, it's important to note that the scoping and system boundaries may need to be refined based
on these results. This means that specific stages or processes within the life cycle might require further
investigation or adjustment
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Iterative Nature of LCA

 Also, the screening phase of the LCA helps identify the inventory data or assumptions used
in the analysis that have the largest influence on the overall results. It also identifies data with
significant uncertainties

 For example, the environmental impact of the smartphone's battery manufacturing might be a key area
of concern, where uncertainties in the data are considerable

 Based on these findings, the subsequent iterations of the LCA would focus on testing and
refining the assumptions or data associated with these influential factors

 Efforts would be made to gather more representative or recent data for the battery manufacturing
process, aiming to reduce uncertainties and improve the accuracy of the overall assessment

 This iterative process allows for a more thorough understanding of the product's
environmental impact and helps refine the assessment over time
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Iterative Nature of LCA

 After revising the inventory data based on the findings from the initial screening phase of the LCA
for the smartphone, a new impact assessment is conducted

 This updated assessment takes into account the refined inventory data and provides a more
accurate understanding of the environmental impacts at different stages of the smartphone's life
cycle

 Following the new impact assessment, a sensitivity analysis is performed once again. This analysis
helps identify the revised key figures and key assumptions that have the most significant influence
on the assessment results

 By understanding these influential factors, researchers can prioritize their efforts in refining and
improving those specific areas

 Through repeated iterations of the LCA, the uncertainty associated with the assessment results is
gradually reduced. Each iteration involves refining the inventory data, conducting impact
assessments, and performing sensitivity analyses

 Repeated iterations ensure that LCA results become more robust, reliable, and aligned with the
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices
 Methodological choices are the decisions made about how to conduct the assessment and
analyze the environmental impacts of a product or process

 These choices include selecting the appropriate LCA framework, defining the system
boundaries, determining the functional unit, and choosing impact assessment methods

 LCA standards permit a wide range of methods to be employed provided that the analysis
clearly documents the methods used for the study

 There are many factors that the engineer should keep in mind to carry out an LCA or to
interpret the information correctly and to be critical

 One should always remember that an LCA results refer to a goal definition with a specific
purpose and a methodology is chosen to answer the question posed

 Methodological choices should be guided by the purpose of the study

 Critical choices of methodology that determine the outcomes of an LCA study are discussed
next
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 1. Functional unit

 It is the quantified reference unit for which the environmental impacts of a product or system
are assessed. It defines the boundaries of the assessment and allows for comparison between
different alternatives

 Critically checking the functional unit is important. Is it a relevant one? Does it allow fair
comparison?

 Example: For an LCA study of comparing different types of light bulbs, a relevant functional unit could
be "providing 1,000 hours of illumination." This functional unit allows for a direct comparison of
different light bulbs based on their environmental impacts per 1,000 hours of use. If the functional unit
were defined differently, such as per unit of weight or per unit of light output, the comparison may not
be fair or meaningful

 So, critically checking the functional unit in an LCA study is crucial to ensure it accurately
represents the intended purpose and allows for fair comparisons between alternatives
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 2. Multifunctionality:

 Let's consider a simple example of a dairy farm that produces both milk and cheese. The milk
is the main product, while the cheese is a co-product. In this case, the dairy farm has
multifunctionality because it provides two different functions or products

 Now, let's apply the hierarchy of solutions presented in the ISO 14044 standard to address the
multifunctionality issue:

 Subdivision of unit process: The first choice is to divide the

multifunctional unit process into minor units, separating the

production of milk from the production of cheese. This means

tracking and assessing the environmental impacts of each product

separately. By doing so, the LCA can provide a clearer and more

accurate picture of the environmental performance of each product

individually
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 2. Multifunctionality:

 System expansion: If subdivision is not feasible, the next option is system expansion

 So for that, we would compare the dairy farm's current process with an alternative scenario where milk
and cheese production are separated. In the current process, the dairy farm collects milk and then uses a
portion of it to produce cheese. However, in the alternative scenario, we would consider the separate
production of milk and cheese. This means that the milk would be produced without any consideration
for cheese production, and the cheese would be produced separately using milk from various sources. By
expanding the system to include this alternative scenario, we can evaluate the environmental impacts of
both cases: (1) the current process where milk and cheese production are combined, and (2) the
alternative process where milk and cheese production are separate.

 System expansion allows for a more comprehensive comparison of the environmental performance of the
dairy farm by considering the different ways in which the co-product, cheese, can be produced. It helps to
understand the impacts of producing milk and cheese together versus producing them separately
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 2. Multifunctionality:

 Allocation: If subdivision and system expansion are not practical/applicable, the ISO 14044
standard recommends using allocation. Allocation involves dividing the inputs and outputs of
the multifunctional process or system between the different products or functions based on
their physical relationships or other relevant relationships

 For instance, the environmental impacts of resources like water, energy, and land used in the dairy farm
can be allocated between milk and cheese production based on their physical relationships. The allocation
can also be based on other relationships, such as the economic values of the co-products. For example, if
the cheese has a higher economic value than milk, the allocation could be weighted accordingly.
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 3. Type of data:

 Data representing how the system reacts to changes are relevant for change-oriented studies,
whereas for other types of studies data representing the average behavior of the system are
more relevant

 Suppose you want to assess the environmental impacts of three fruits: apples, oranges, and bananas.

 Change-oriented studies: If you want to see how different variables affect the environmental impacts
of fruits, you would look at change-oriented studies. For example, you might want to compare the
environmental impact of conventionally grown apples versus organically grown apples or explore the
impact of transportation distances for each fruit.

 In this case, you would need specific data that shows how these variables, like organic

farming or transportation distance, affect the environmental performance of the fruits.

These data would help you understand how making specific changes can influence the overall

sustainability of the fruits

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 3. Type of data:

 Average behavior studies: If you want to assess the overall environmental performance of the
fruits without focusing on specific changes, you would look at average behavior studies. These
studies give a general idea of the typical environmental impacts associated with each fruit.

 For example, you might compare the average water usage, energy consumption, and pesticide use
of apples, oranges, and bananas. These data provide a general understanding of the environmental
performance of each fruit without considering specific variations.
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 3. Type of data:

 Choice of data: In an LCA, you may need to decide between using site-specific data or average
data. Site-specific data come from specific locations or farms and represent the actual performance of
the fruit production process. Average data represent the performance of a broader range of fruit
production processes.

 For instance, if you have access to data from a specific apple orchard, you can use site-specific data for
the apple production phase in the LCA. However, if you don't have that

specific data, you might rely on average data from multiple apple orchards to

represent the overall impacts of apple production

 In order to interpret and apply the results of an LCA, the data

must be assessed for quality and applicability

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 4. Impact assessment method:

 An important part of impact assessment methods is characterization methods/models

 Characterization methods help measure environmental impacts in LCA. However, they are
better developed for some impacts than others. For example, greenhouse gas emissions have well-
established methods, while other impacts like water pollution may be less precise

 Engineers should be aware of the limitations of these models. Some impacts are harder to
measure accurately, leading to uncertainties in the results. For example, quantifying the exact
water pollution impacts of different materials can be challenging.

 Also, some environmental impacts cannot be easily quantified but should still be considered. A
qualitative assessment through life cycle thinking allows for a broader perspective. This
includes factors like cultural heritage or social aspects that can't be precisely measured but are
important for understanding the overall sustainability of options
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 5. Cut-off rules:

 Cut-off is a solution to the challenge of dealing with an infinitely large system in an LCA. Since
it is impractical to consider every single component and process within a system, cut-off rules
are established to define the boundaries of the study

 For example, using a simple example of a laptop production, a cut-off rule might state that the LCA
study will account for at least 95% of the total mass of inputs. This means that the analysis will focus
on the most significant inputs that contribute to the overall mass of the laptop production process

 However, one should be careful that a material with a small mass contribution may have
significant impacts on energy or environmental impacts

 A laptop may have a small plastic casing that constitutes only a small fraction of the total mass but
requires significant energy and resources in its production. Even though it has a small mass
contribution, ignoring its impacts due to cut-off rules based solely on mass could lead to an incomplete
understanding of the environmental implications
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 5. Cut-off rules:

 Another cut-off decision involves capital goods and infrastructure, i.e., the buildings and
equipment used to manufacture the product or the vehicles used to transport products

 When assessing the environmental impacts of a laptop, it's important to include the manufacturing
equipment and energy consumption associated with it. Additionally, the environmental impacts of the
vehicles used to transport the laptops to distribution centers or customers should be considered as well

 6. Attributional and consequential modeling:

 Attributional LCA: Think of it as a snapshot of the current situation. It assesses the environmental
impacts of a product or system based on its existing conditions and technologies, without
considering potential changes or consequences

 Example: Imagine comparing two cars, Car A and Car B. In an attributional LCA, you would analyze the
environmental impacts of each car based on their current design, materials, and manufacturing processes.
This approach helps determine which car has a lower environmental footprint based on their existing
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 6. Attributional and consequential modeling:

 Consequential LCA: It considers the potential changes and consequences that may result
from different choices or scenarios. It looks at the indirect impacts and ripple effects
throughout the supply chain due to changes in demand, production, or other influencing
factors

 Example: Imagine a city considering the introduction of a bike-sharing program as an alternative

transportation option.

 Indirect Impacts: The analysis would consider factors such as the production and distribution of
bicycles, the infrastructure needed for bike lanes and parking stations, and the potential changes in
travel behavior.

 Environmental Consequences: The LCA would evaluate the environmental impacts, including
reduced emissions from cars, improved air quality, reduced traffic congestion, and the potential for
increased physical activity and public health benefits

 By conducting a consequential LCA, the city can better understand the potential environmental
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 7. Use of input–output and hybrid analysis in LCA:

 Let's simplify the concept of an input-output (IO) model in economics using a simple
example. Consider a hypothetical economy consisting of two sectors: the agricultural sector and the
food processing sector.

 Interdependencies: In an IO model, we can analyze the interdependencies between these

sectors. For instance, let's say the food processing sector purchases $10 million worth of agricultural
products (such as wheat, vegetables, and fruits) from the agricultural sector.

 Domestic and International Trade: The IO model also takes into account trade between
sectors within the country and with other countries. Let's assume that the food processing sector
imports $2 million worth of spices from other countries.

 Statistical Impact Data: The IO model can be coupled with statistical impact data to
understand the environmental and social characteristics associated with these economic
activities. For example, producing $10 million worth of agricultural products might be associated
with 5,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions, while the employment in the food processing sector might
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 7. Use of input–output and hybrid analysis in LCA:

 In summary, an IO model in economics represents the interdependencies between different sectors of

an economy. By coupling this economic information with statistical impact data, such as
environmental emissions or social characteristics, we can better understand the environmental and
social implications of economic activities in specific sectors

 “Input-Output databases” are databases for LCA that are based on national economic and
environmental statistics and a number of IO-databases are now available in LCA software

 Imagine you want to assess the environmental impacts of producing a smartphone. Typically, this involves
various stages such as mining of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, and disposal

 IO-databases and Cut-offs: If you use an IO-database for LCA, you don't have to make cut-offs,
which means you don't have to exclude any parts of the product system. You can assess the
environmental impacts of the entire life cycle of the smartphone, from raw material extraction to disposal

 Aggregated Processes: However, a disadvantage of using IO-databases is that the processes are
relatively aggregated. Instead of providing information on individual products or components, they
group similar products into product groups. For example, all electronic devices may be grouped together,
rather than specific smartphone models
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Methodological choices (Critical choices of methodology)

 7. Use of input–output and hybrid analysis in LCA:

 Hybrid Analysis: To overcome the limitation of aggregated processes, a hybrid analysis can
be performed. This involves combining the IO-database approach with process-based LCA.
In process-based LCA, you can gather more detailed information about specific processes or
components of the smartphone, such as the battery manufacturing or screen production

 By combining the comprehensive view of the IO-database with the detailed information
from process-based LCA, you can obtain a result that has both completeness (covering the
entire life cycle) and detail (providing specific information about certain processes or
components)
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCI Databases and LCA Softwares

 Since early 1990s, LCI databases have developed in response to the growing demand for
life cycle information and these data sources come mainly from North America, Western
Europe, and northeast Asia

 It is possible to extract meaningful information from public databases

 LCI databases are collections of data that provide information on the environmental impacts

associated with the entire life cycle of a product or process

 These databases contain detailed data on the energy and

material inputs, emissions to air, water, and land, as well as

other environmental releases associated with various

stages of a product's life cycle, including raw material

extraction, manufacturing, transportation, use, and

disposal
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCI Databases and LCA Softwares

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 LCI Databases and LCA Softwares

 With even moderately large systems, data handling and calculation can be complex and a
software will help in reducing the time needed for assessments, prevent errors, assist conversion
of data to functional unit basis, increase capabilities, and organize systems and data

 However, some software/database packages can be fairly expensive

 There are several commercially available LCA software packages that provide databases, LCIA
methods as well as facilitate the conduct of an LCA, which typically requires information about
hundreds of processes and their input and output flows

 In recent years, Simapro from PreConsultants and Gabi from PE international have the highest
market share on a worldwide level. Prices are in the range of several thousand Euros with
academic licenses offered at a much lower price

 Some tools are still freely available such as CMCLA and Gemis though not offering all features
of commercial LCA systems

 Open LCA is an internationally used, open source software program

 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Strengths and Limitations of LCA

 Strengths:

 LCA is a method that uses scientific principles to examine how products/processes

impact the environment. It follows a structured approach and focuses on measuring
and analyzing environmental issues. LCA is a tool that provides quantitative
information about the environmental aspects of technical systems

 It takes a life cycle perspective and as such it allows identifying and preventing the
burden shifting between life cycle stages

 It covers a broad range of environmental issues, typically, around 15 so as to avoid

burden shifting that can happen when efforts to lower one type of environmental
impact unintentionally increase other types of environmental impacts
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Strengths and Limitations of LCA

 Limitations:

 The comprehensiveness of LCA is also a limitation, as it requires simplifications in the

modeling of the product system and the environmental impacts

 LCA does not provide exact measurements of how a product/process affects the
environment in reality. Instead, it estimates the potential impacts that could occur
throughout its life cycle

 Consider LCA study for a car. The LCA would consider factors such as the energy and
resources used during manufacturing, the emissions generated during vehicle
operation, and the disposal impact at the end of its life. However, the calculated
environmental impacts are not precise measurements of what will actually happen in the
environment. They represent potential impacts based on assumptions and models used in the
assessment
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Strengths and Limitations of LCA

 Limitations:

 LCA models are based on the average performance of the processes and do not support the
consideration of risks of extreme events such as industrial accidents

 LCA calculations are based on typical or average conditions, assuming that the processes
involved in a product's life cycle will perform as expected. However, LCA models do not
explicitly incorporate the possibility of rare or catastrophic events such as industrial accidents,
natural disasters, or other unforeseen incidents that may have significant environmental
impacts

 Consider a chemical manufacturing process that is part of a product's life cycle. The LCA
would typically estimate the environmental impact based on the normal operations of the
facility and the known risks associated with its processes. However, it would not specifically
account for the potential environmental damage that could occur in the event of a major
chemical spill or explosion, as these extreme events are not explicitly included in the model
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Strengths and Limitations of LCA

 Limitations:

 While LCA can help us understand which product system is more environmentally
friendly, it cannot tell us if it is “good enough.” If an LCA shows that a product has a
lower environmental impact compared to another product, we cannot conclude that the
product is environmentally sustainable. Therefore, the results of an LCA study should be
used together with other information in the decision-making process when assessing the
trade-offs with cost and performance
 LCA METHODOLOGY

 Strengths and Limitations of LCA

 Limitations:

 Performing an LCA can be resource and time intensive. Gathering the data can be
problematic, and the availability of data can greatly impact the accuracy of the final
results. Therefore, it is important to weigh the availability of data, the time necessary
to conduct the study, and the financial resources required against the projected
benefits of the LCA

 LCI databases often cannot include every single process and account for every input
and output due to limitations such as system boundaries, data gaps, and cut-off
criteria

 The LCI data collected contain uncertainty and characterization models, which are far
from perfect