Memory

Contents
 1. Defining of Memory
 2. Three System of Memory
 3. Working Memory
 4. Why We Forget
 5. Decay and Interferences Theory
 6. Memory Dysfunction
What is Memory?

Human memory is an information

processing system that works
constructively to encode, store, and
retrieve information.
̶ The process by which we
encode, store, and retrieve
information.
 Information Processing Model

 Encoding - getting information into the

memory system
 Storage - the retaining/maintaining of
encoded information over time
 Retrieval - getting encoded information
out of memory storage/(Recalling
memories)
 Memory’s Three Basic Tasks

Encoding Storage Retrieval

 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves Elaboration –
modification of Deliberate encoding in
which you connect a
information to fit the
new concept with
preferred format of existing information
the memory system
 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves retention
of encoded material
over time
 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves the
location and
recovery of
information
from memory
 Encoding
 The processing of information into the memory
system.

Getting a girls name at a party

Typing info into a computer
 Storage
 The retention of encoded material over
time.

Pressing Ctrl S and Trying to remember her name

saving the info. when you leave the party.
 Retrieval
 The process of getting the information out of
memory storage.

Seeing her the next day

Finding your document and calling her the wrong
and opening it up. name (retrieval failure).
 How Does Memory form?

 1st step in forming memory is Encoding.

 Everyday we experience thousands of pieces of new
information: i.e – new terms in psychology classes.

 How is this information encoded into memory?

1. Some inf. is encoded with little or no effort
– Automatic Processing.
e.g.-(What you had for breakfast?)
is the effortless encoding of inf.

● It is not under conscious control.

2. Effortful Processing ̶ requires attention,
rehearse, practice & mental work in
learning new information.

i) Maintenance Rehearsal – Simple repetition

of information.
ii) Elaborative Rehearsal – Analyzing the meaning of the
new information and relating it to information already
in long term memory.
 The Three System (Stages)of Memory
Short term
Sensory Long-term
(Working)
Memory Memory
Memory
 The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory
Preserves brief
sensory
impressions of
stimuli
 The Three Stages of Memory
Short-Term
Sensory (Working) Long-term
Memory Memory Memory

Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal, also called
short-term memory or
STM
 The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory

Stores information on a
relatively permanent basis
(organized according to
meaning), also called
LTM.
 Sensory Memory
 The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory
system
 Iconic (image) store – visual information,
½ second
 Echoic store – sound information, 2-3
seconds

 Information held just long enough to make a decision on its

importance
 Sensory Memory
 It can store an enormous amount of information,
almost everything that we see/hear
 All but three or four items disappear before they
can enter consciousness
 It can store these inf. for only a very brief period
of time
 There is a separate sensory register for each
sense
 Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory
images take the form of nerve impulses
 Working/Short-Term Memory

 Magic number Seven Plus or minus 2

 The list of magic sevens
 Seven wonders of world
 Seven seas
 Seven deadly sins
 Seven primary colors
 Seven musical scale notes
 Seven days of the week
 Short – Term Memory
 It is a temporary storage system with the capacity to store a
limited amount of inf. for a limited length of time or duration
 Capacity: 7 plus or minus 2
 Duration: 15 to 25 sec.
 By repeating inf. in short term memory over & over, it will
remain there indefinitely.
 Maintenance rehearsal is the process of keeping inf. in STM.
 e.g: home Shopping Centre
Rehearsing
 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory

 Chunking –
i)Organizing(/grouping) pieces of information into a smaller
number of meaningful units.
ii)The process of recording, or reorganizing, the
information is called Chunking.
 Maintenance rehearsal –
Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to
keep it from fading while in working memory
 Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
 Elaborative rehearsal –
Process in which information is actively
reviewed and related to information already
in LTM
 Making connections to previous memories will
improve retrieval of new memory
 Long – Term Memory
 Memory that stores information on a relatively
permanent basis, although it may be difficult to
retrieve
 Capacity: Indefinite (An average adult has One
billion bits of inf. in memory)
 Duration: Lifetime.
 Long-Term Memory
 Procedural memory (IMPLICIT)–
 Memory for skills and habits, such as ridding a bike.
 Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
 Declarative memory (EXPLICIT) –
 Memory for factual information: names, dates, faces.
 Division of LTM that stores explicit information
(also known as fact memory)
 Memory for specific information.
TYPES OF MEMORIES
 Long-Term Memory

 Episodic memory –
 Subdivision of declarative memory that stores a
record of the events of our lives
 memories for personal events, or “episodes” that occur
in a particular time, place, or contexts.
Semantic memory –
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores
general knowledge and facts, including meanings
of words and concepts
 Ebbinghause and Nonsense

 Forgetting curve
 Nonsense Syllables
wyx
ghe
jek
lsm
 Why Do We forget?
 Forgetting – the inability to recall a particular piece
of information accurately.
 Forgetting can take place in Encoding, Storage, or
retrieval.
 Psychologists ‘ve proposed Four (4) views of
forgetting:
(i) Encoding Failure (ii) Decay Theory
(iii) Interference theory (iv) Retrieval Failure
 Why Do We forget?
 Encoding Failure– we cannot remember
information because we never stored the
information in memory to begin with.

 we may not have paid attention to the material in the

first place.
 Why Do We forget?
 Decay Theory – memory spontaneously fades or
loses/decays with the passage of time through nonuse.
 Experiment: Stimuli: 10 nonsense syllables
Participants: 2 Adults
Task: They learned the list of that syllables
After Task: 1st participant went to sleep
2nd participant continued normal activities
Result: When participant went to sleep they could
recall much more information.
 Why Do We forget?
 Interference Theory – other memories interfere with the
retrieval of the particular memory we are searching for.
 (a)Proactive interference: old information interferes with the
recall of new information.

Interference

Study Study Attempt to

Urdu Hindi recall Hindi

Older information New Information

 Why Do We forget?

(b)Retroactive interference: new information interferes with

the recall of old information.

Interference

Study Study Attempt to

Hindi Urdu recall Urdu

New information Old Information

 Why Do We forget?
 Retrieval Failure – memory cannot be recalled
because the proper retrieval cues are not available.
e.g.,- You lost keys at the library.
 Improving Memory

 Memory could be strengthened and improved through
exercise.

 “Paradise Lost”..Memorized..No Improvement

 (i) Chunking –Organizing(/grouping) pieces of

information into a smaller number of meaningful units
 Improving Memory

 (ii) Chunking –Organizing(/grouping) pieces of
information into a smaller number of meaningful units.

 (iii) Elaborative rehearsal –

Process in which information is actively reviewed and
related to information already in LTM.
 Improving Memory
(iv) Periodic Retrieval – rehearse the material
whenever the occasion arises.
 (iv) Organization and Mnemonies –
a) Mnemonic – is a technique for organizing
information in long term memory.
e.g., “Thirty days hath the September, April,
June & November………”

--The material into a logical framework – a

“Rhyme”.
 Improving Memory
b)The method of Loci – involves imagining items
to be remembered and associating each
image with a place already stored in
memory.
c) The Keyword Method

iv) The SQ3R Method

Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review