Molecular biology

Assist. Prof. Sameira

4/1 /2023

• key discover of DNA, DNA structure, genes, chromosome, RNA

• DNA Replication
• Mutation
• Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR
• Gel electrophoresis,
• Protein synthesis
1
 Recommended books
o Cell and Molecular Biology second edition
Author: Nalini chander, suzan viselli, 2019

o Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th edition

Authors: Alberts et al., 2008
Publisher: Garland

o Concepts of Genetics 10th edition.

Authors: William.S. Klug, ed. et al.2012)

o Human Evolutionary genetics 2nd edition

Authors: Jobling,M et al 2014

o Molecular Biology 6th edition

Author; David Clark 2005

2
Lecture 1

 The Short History of DNA and Genetics

 Gene, genome, allele, chromosome
 Structure of DNA
 RNA, compare with DNA

3
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• Chromosomes are made of DNA

• DNA controls all living processes including production of new cells –

cell division
• DNA carries the genetic code – stores and transmits genetic
information from one generation to the next

4
 The Short History of DNA
Griffith experimented with the bacteria that cause pneumonia Streptococcus
pneumoniae . Two Different strains:
Serotype II: no capsule - ‘rough’ colony (R) - non-pathogenic ( not deadly)
Griffith’s experiment identifying the “transforming principle”
Serotype III: capsule - ‘smooth’ colony (S) - pathogenic (deadly)

Bacterial
colonies +
Rough Smooth Heat-killed Rough Heat-killed
nonvirulent virulent smooth nonvirulent smooth
(strain R) (strain S) virulent (strain R) virulent
(strain S) (strain S)

Injection

Results
Mouse healthy Mouse dies Mouse healthy Mouse dies

Live strain S bacteria

in blood sample
from dead mouse

Griffith concluded that a transforming material passed from dead S bacteria to live
R bacteria, making them deadly.
5
 Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty’s:
To discover if transforming principle was DNA (Before 1940s it was believed
that genes were made up of protein rather than DNA)

Added a small portion

of each sample to the
culture containing R
cells.

transformation has
occurred by testing for
the presence of virulent
S cells
 Discovery the structure of DNA
Watson & Crick, awarded a Nobel Prize in for their work on the structure of
DNA and for a famous model of the DNA double helix by using the data of work
Franklin’s on DNA structure using the (X- ray. crystallographic images) technique.
DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides in a ladder-like structure coiled around
a central axis in opposite direct. which is twisted (Double Helix),and antiparallel

Chargaff’s Laws nitrogen base

1. Total Pyrimidines (T,C) = total purines (A,G)
2. [T] = [A] [C] = [G]
A = 30.3% T = 30.3%
G = 19.5% C = 19.9%

7
 One phosphate + one sugar + one base = one
nucleotide
 Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA

 Each strand has a 5′end (with a phosphate

group) and a 3′end (with a hydroxyl group)

 The deoxyribonucleotides are linked together by

3′- 5′phosphodiester bonds(covalent bond)
8
 Adenine (A) pair with Thymine(T)
Guanine(G) pair with Cytosine(C)
Two hydrogen bonds are required to
bond (A)& (T)

Three hydrogen bonds required to

bond (G )& (C)

Double ring purines (A)and (G)

Single ring pyrimidines (T) and (C)

In order for bases to be facing each other the

two strands must run in opposite directions (i.e.
they are anti-parallel)
Gene and Genome
Genes, are specific sequences of nucleotides, can be as short as 50
nucleotides and as long as 250 million The position of a gene is called a
locus. The genes are functional units of the chromosomes & the synthesis
of protein components and enzymes of a cell is regulated by genes. DNA
stores genetic information in segments called genes

Genome: The genome is a total DNA in a cell of all the chromosomes 22

autosome pairs + 2 sex chromosomes.

3 billion base pairs in the our genome. 30,000 to 40,000 genes?

The Human Genome* Project (HGP) was an international , 13-year effort,
1990 to 2003. to discover the complete set of human genes and make them
accessible for further biological study, and determine the complete
sequence of DNA bases in the human genome.

10
Do homologous chromosomes have identical genes?

Alleles are version of the same gene that code for variant of the same phenotype

1. Any individual can only have a maximum of two alleles for a given gene
one was inherited from mother and one from father.
2. have a different DNA base sequence. The sequence to be very similar,
differing only by a few bases.

11
 Gene Allele

Definition A gene is a portion of DNA that An allele is a specific form of a gene.

determines a certain trait.

Function Genes are responsible for the Alleles are responsible for the
expression of traits. variations in which a given trait can
be expressed.
Alleles occur in pairs. may be more
Pairing Genes do not occur in pairs.
than two alleles. blood groups A, B, O

Examples Eye color, hair color, hairline Blue eyes, blonde hair, V-shaped
shape hairline

The 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but

code for different traits in their allelic forms , one was inherited from the
mother and one from the father
12
 why DNA was chosen over RNA as genetic material?

 DNA chemically and structurally stable

 DNA able to replicate

 In DNA mutation and slow changes should take place.

 DNA must be able to transfer from parent to progeny for further

evolution.