Introduction to Geodesy

• Geodesy: The science of the measurement and mapping of the earth surface.

• determination of the geometrical and physical shape of the Earth and its
orientation in space

• The determination of the earth’s external gravity field, as well as the surface of
the ocean floor.

• It extended to include temporal variation of the earth and its gravity field,
geodesy may be included in the geoscience, and in the Engineering sciences.

• It collaboration with other sciences toward the determination of the surface of

other celestial bodies
 Cont.…
Geodesy has divided different branches.

 Physical Geodesy

 Satellite Geodesy

 Geometrical geodesy

Classification of physical geodesy

 Global geodesy

 National geodetic surveys and

 Plane surveying
 Physical Geodesy
• The branch of geodesy that is concerned with determining the physical shape of the Earth is
called physical geodesy.

• To find the actual shape of the earth you need to determine the shape of the geoid.

• In physical geodesy the shape of Earth surface can be represent with Geoid surface.

• The main function of the geoid in physical geodesy is to serve as a reference surface for
leveling.

• The geoid would then coincide with the surface of that water layer.

• If you leveled over this surface, your results would show that the entire surface was at the
same elevation.
 Geometric and Satellite Geodesy
• By means of artificial satellite the measurement of the form and
dimensions of Earth.

• The location of objects on its surface and the figure of earth gravity field
by means of artificial satellite techniques.

• The main goals of satellite geodesy are:

• Determination of the figure of the Earth, positioning, and navigation

(geometric satellite geodesy)

• Determination of geoid, Earth’s gravity field and its temporal variations

 Cont.
• Geodesy divided into the areas of global Geodesy, national geodesy, and plane
surveying.

• Global Geodesy: - is responsible for determination of the figure of the earth

surface and the external gravity field.

• National Geodesy: - establishes the fundamentals for the determination of a

large number of control points, arranged in geodetic and gravimetric networks.

• in this fundamental work, curvature and gravity field of earth must be

considered. E.g triangulation, trilateration
 Cont.
Plane Surveying: - the detail of terrain is obtained. It is used in (topographic
surveying, cadastral surveying, Engineering surveying). E.g precise
traversing, resection and intersection
 CHAPTER TWO 2.
Two Dimensional Control Surveying
• Traditionally there have been two general types of control survey: horizontal
and vertical control survey.

• Horizontal surveys generally establish geodetic latitude and geodetic

longitude of stations over a large areas.

• Horizontal control surveys have traditionally been the ground method

triangulation, precise traversing, trilateration, resection and intersection.

• But recently the emerging of artificial satellite that assist to establish highly
accurate horizontal control point is being advantageous in aspect of accuracy,
easy use, speed and coverage area.
 Triangulation
• It is one of the methods of fixing accurate controls points.

• It consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which a special

side called as base line, is measured and remaining sides are calculated
from the angles measured at the vertices of the triangles,

• It is based on the trigonometric proposition that

 If one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining
sides can be computed.

 vertices being the control points are called as triangulation stations.

 Triangulation surveys are carried out.
• To establish accurate control point for plane and geodetic surveys
covering large areas

• To establish accurate control point for photogrammetric surveys for

large areas.

• To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth,

• To determine accurate locations for setting out.

 Principle of Triangulation
• The next figure shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the
angles in both the triangles and the length L of the side AB have been
measured. Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the triangulation
station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known.

• The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations B,

C, and D by the method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of
all the lines
Cont.…
Cont...
Cont...
 Classification of triangulation systems

• Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on

the degree of accuracy desired, triangulation surveys are classified as

 first-order or primary

 second-order or secondary, and

third-order or tertiary.
Cont.…
 Triangulation figure and layout
• 1. Single chain of triangles

• 2. Double chain of triangles

• 3. Braced quadrilaterals

• 4. Central triangles and polygons

• 5. A combination of above system

 Criteria for Selection of the Layout of Triangles

• Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.

• Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.

• The arrangement of central triangle and polygon should be such that the

computations can be done through two or more independent routes.

• The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably

two routes form well conditioned triangles.

 Cont.…
• No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, which ever end
of the series is used for computation

• Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered
polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.

• The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and
very short lines should be avoided.

• The layout should be requires least work to achieve maximum progress.

 Well-conditioned triangles
• The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the arrangement of
triangles in the layout and the magnitude of the angles in individual triangles.

• The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular measurement has a
minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is known as well conditioned
triangle.

• The error in the other two sides if any, will affect the sides of the triangles whose
computation is based upon their values.

• Due to accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus affected thereafter.

To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally affected, these should,
 Triangulation procedure

• Reconnaissance, select the location of stations;

• Evaluation of the strength of figure;

• Erection of signals, and in some cases, towers for elevating the signals and
/or instruments

• observation of directions or angles;

• measurement of base lines;

• Astronomic observation at one or more locations;

• computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the lengths of

all sides and coordinates for all stations
 Strength of figure

• It plays an important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation

system.

• Where 𝐿2- the square of the probable error that would occur in the
sixth place of the logarithm of any side, d -the probable error of an
observed direction in seconds of arc, R -a term which represents the
shape of the figure
 Cont.…

• Where D - the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,

• 𝛿𝐴, 𝐵- the difference in the sixth place of logarithm of the sine of the distance angles A,
B etc., respectively

• C =(𝑛′ − 𝑆′ + 1) + (𝑛 − 2𝑆 + 3)

• n′ - the total number of sides including the known side of the figure,

• n - the total number of sides observed in both directions including the known side,

• S′ - the number of stations occupied, and

• S = the total number of stations

Exercise
 Cont.…
• Distance of visible horizon

• If there is no obstruction due to intervening ground between two

stations.
 Cont.…
• Where h - the elevation of the station above mean sea level,

• D - the distance of visible horizon,

• R -the mean earth’s radius (6373 km), and

• m - the mean coefficient of refraction (taken as 0.07 for sights over

land, 0.08 for sights over sea)

• For the sights over land h = 0.6735 𝐷2 where D is in kilometers.

• The expression given as h is used to determine the indivisibility

between two triangulation stations
Cont.…
 Routine of triangulation survey
• The routine of triangulation survey, broadly consists of

 Field work and

 Computations.

• The field work of triangulation is divided into the following operations:

 Reconnaissance

 Erection of signals and towers

• Signals: Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the
observations are made to these signals from other stations
 Cont.…
• Towers :is erected at the triangulation station when the station or the
signal or both are to be elevated to make the observations possible form
other stations in case of problem of inter visibility.

• The height of tower depends upon the character of the terrain and the
length of the sight.

• The towers generally have two independent structures.

The outer structure is for supporting the observer and

The signal whereas the inner one is for supporting the instrument only
 Measurement of base line
• The accuracy of triangulation system depends on the measurement of the base
line and,

• The measurement of base line forms the most important part of the triangulation
operations.

• The length of the base line depends upon the grade of the triangulation.

• The length of the base is also determined by the interest of securing strong
figures in the base net.

• Ordinarily the longer base, the easier it will be found to secure strong figures
 Measurement of horizontal angles
• Horizontal angles are generally measured with an optical or electronic
theodolite in primary and, Secondary triangulation.

• For tertiary triangulation generally transit or Engineer’s transit having

least count of 20" is used.

• The horizontal angles of a triangulation system can be observed by the

following methods.

Repetition and,

reiteration
 Measurement of vertical angles
• Measurement of vertical angles is required to compute the elevation of
the triangulation stations

• Astronomical observations to determine the azimuth of the lines.

• To determine the azimuth of the initial side, intermediate sides, and the
last side of the triangulation net, astronomical observations are mad
Example compute the strength of the figure
 Triangulation Adjustment
• Before the length computation begin, it is necessary to make triangulation adjustments.

• When chains of single triangles are used it is necessary to make the following
adjustments.

• Station adjustments: the sum of the angles around each point should exactly be 3600.

• Figure adjustments: the sum of the angles in each triangle should exactly be 1800.

• For the angles about a point the difference between the sum of measured angles and 360 0
is balanced equally between the numbers of angles.

• In the same fashion the difference between the sum of the measured angles in each
triangle and 180 is balanced equally between the angles.
Example
 Adjustment of quadrilateral

• When a chain of quadrilaterals are used, there are two conditions which
must be satisfied.

• A. Geometric condition: the sum of the interior angles must equal to

(n-1)*1800; where n is the sum number of sides of the figure.

• Trigonometric condition: The sine of each angle must be proportional to

the opposite side of that triangle.
 Geometric condition

• the sum of interior angles of a triangle should be 1800. For ABC ; a + b + c + d = 180

• For BCD; c + d + e + f =180 For ABD; a + b + h + g =180 For ACD ; h + g + f + e = 180

• The sum of interior angles of quadrilateral 360. a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 360

• The sum of opposite angles should be equal. a + b = e + f and c+ d = g + h

 Trigonometric condition
• Log { (sin a) (sin c) (sin e) (sin g) } –
Log { (sin b) (sin d) (sin f) (sin h)} = 0

• Logsina + Logsinc + Logsine + Logsing =

• Logsinb + Logsind + Logsinf + Logsinh

• This geometric condition to be satisfied for quadrilateral adjustment

 Home work

• Compute the coordinate of each point if Azimuth AB = 60 degree and

base line AB is 200 meter coordinate of is given A (100, 100)
 Computation of Azimuths and coordinate

• If the coordinates of stations A and B are known, the azimuth from

north of the line AB is determined by:
• AzAB=tan-1 (Eb-Ea/Nb-Na)
• Compute for each station of azimuth.
• Then Compute the coordinates of each station
• The coordinates of all the stations throughout the triangulation system
are computed by using the strongest route of triangles in the network.
 Chapter 3

TRIALITERATION
 Cont..
• When all the sides of a triangulation system are measured & the
technique has been made possible by the development of EDM
(Electronic Distance Measurement)

• However, the angular measurements define the shape of the

triangulation system better than wholly linear measurements.

• So a combined triangulation and trilateration (Triangulateration) system

in which all the angles by theodolite and all the sides are measured by
EDM, represents the strongest network for creating horizontal control.
 Principle of Trilateration in Surveying
• Trilateration measures distance and not angles unlike triangulation method.
Initially, the area to measured is turned into triangles and the length of all the
sides of the triangles are measured.

• It can also be polygons, or quadrilateral or any combination of them.

• The distances are measured using an electronic instrument or a suitable

instrument.

• The angles of the triangles and the coordinates of their vertices are determined
using trigonometric computations.

• Cosine rule are used to determine the angle

Cont...
 Cont.…
• This means, the method, does not involves measurement of angles.

• In order to check the accuracy of determined angles from the trigonometric

observations, horizontal angles are sometimes measured.

• Once the angles of the triangles are computed, the trilateration is adjusted and
the coordinates of the stations are determined.

• When trilateration is used for navigation, astronomy, engineering or mapping,

azimuths are also determined.

• Azimuth is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinated system, that is

measured in degrees.
 Advantages of Trilateration in Surveying
• Achieve rapid control expansion with almost accuracy

• Earns good cost-benefit ratio and potential

• Less expensive compared to triangulation

• Accurate for most conditions

• Permits control over large and small geographical areas with minimum number
of workforces.

• Provide necessary scale control that is lacking in triangulation

• Proper performance make it superior than triangulation and traversing method

CHAPTER FOUR

Resection
 Resection

• determine the precise position of the new control points using the
coordinates of the existing control survey points and survey
measurements. The technique that you will use is referred to as a
resection technique

• Two alternative resection methods are described below:

Cassin method
Cont.…
Cont.…
Tienstra’s Methods
Cont.…
Home work
CHAPTER FIVE

INTERSECTION
 Intersections
• Intersections are the group of planar surveying calculations where we use
two control points (three in the case of resection) with known coordinates
and certain angle/distance measurements to compute the coordinates of an
unknown point.
 Cont.…
• Intersection using inner angles

• Intersection using whole circle bearings

• Arc section
 CHAPTER SIX

Geodetic Reference System

 The Concepts of Reference Ellipsoid
• Based on the law of gravitation, Newton proposed a rotational
ellipsoid as an equilibrium figure for a homogeneous, fluid, rotating
Earth.

• The flattening of Newton’s ellipsoid was 1/230.

• The gravity acceleration from the equator to the poles proportional to

sin2𝜑

• Christian Huygens calculated an Earth model flattening of 1/576 at

the poles.
 Cont.…
• Arc measurements at various latitudes were now required to verify the
proposed ellipsoidal Earth models.

• The length of a 1° arc (meridian arc for a difference of 1° in latitude), in the

case of flattened poles, should increase pole-ward from the equator.

• So distinguish between arc measurements along an ellipsoidal meridian

(latitude arc measurement), along a parallel (longitude arc measurement), and
arc measurements oblique to the meridian.

• The rotational ellipsoid is generated by rotating the meridian ellipse about its
minor axis
 Cont..

Figure geometry of Ellipse and rotational ellipsoid

Cont..
 Curvature on the reference ellipsoid
• The meridians and parallels are the lines of curvature of the rotational
ellipsoid
• The radius (M) of curvature of the meridian (N-S) and curvature in the
(N) prime vertical respectively.

The radius of curvature of the ellipsoidal normal section with the

geodetic azimuth α is computed

• Mean radius
 Widely used reference ellipsoid

Name Year a(m) 1/f Remarks

Clarke 1880 6378249.145 298.465Ethiopia

GRS80 1980 6378137 298.222101Recommand. By IAG

WGS84 1984 6378137 298.223563Used GPS

Hayford 1910 6378388 297North America

 Terrestrial geodetic measurement
• Measurements determine the relative position of points on the Earth surface.

• And generally use electromagnetic waves for deriving geometric quantities

between them.

• The observations refers to the local vertical, and thus delivers results
orientated in local gravity related astronomic systems

• The measurement of horizontal and zenith angles and of distances allows

relative three-dimensional positioning

• Total station which measured vertical and horizontal with integrated GNSS
 Cont.…
• Precise height differences are provided by leveling, which again refers to the
Earth’s gravity field.

• Due to the high accuracy and economy of satellite-based positioning

techniques, terrestrial geodetic measurements are used primarily for
interpolating satellite-derived results or in areas where satellite methods fail
or need terrestrial support.

• This includes underground and underwater positioning, surveys in forests and

in urban areas, engineering surveys, and monitoring of local geodynamic
processes
Horizontal and vertical angle measurements
• The horizontal angle is defined as the angle measured in the horizontal
plane of the local astronomic system between two vertical planes.

• The vertical angle is the angle measured in the vertical plane between
the horizontal plane and the direction to the target point.

• The zenith angle (also zenith distance), being the complement to 90°, is
often introduced instead of the vertical angle.

• A theodolite is used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

 Distance measurements
• Terrestrial distance measurements have played and still play an important
role for positioning

• Electromagnetic distance measurements uses either

 Light wave (λ = 0.4 to 0.7 μm )
 Near infrared (λ = 1 μm )
 micro waves (λ= 1 to 10 cm)

For electro - optical distance measurements, the transmitting and

receiving unit are combined in one instrument.
 Cont.
• S= 0.5(v∆𝑡) general formula of distance measurements in EDM.

• If the uncertainty in distance is to remain less than 1 mm, the time of

propagation must be obtained to an accuracy better than 0.01 ns.

• This high accuracy demand can be fulfilled by short (a few ns) laser
pulses, electronic counting controlled by a reference oscillator

• and averaging the results of a large amount of individual

measurements.
 Cont.

Where N is the number of complete periods, 𝝀 is the wavelength,

Travel time Δt and phase shift ∆𝝋, f is frequency
 Map projection
The three-dimensional surface was transform to create a flat map sheet.

The mathematical transformation is refered to as a map projection.

The shape of the graticule on the flat paper is very different than on the earth.

The map projection has distorted the graticule Because maps are flat, some of
the simplest projections are made onto geometric shapes that can be flattened
without stretching their surfaces.

These are called developable surfaces.

Common examples of developed surface are Cones, Cylinders, and Planes

 Mercator projection direct and inverse computation

Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by

Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.

It became standard map projection for navigation because it is

unique in representing north and south local direction and shapes.

Characters of normal Mercator
projections
I. Meridians and parallel circles are projected into straight lines,
vertical to each other.

II. Unavoidable east-west stretching is accompanied by a north-south

stretching

III. Area scale increase dramatically toward north pole

IV. Useless for latitudes > 70 degree.

V. Conformal projection.
Direct and inverse formula for normal
Mercator projection
Characteristics of transversal Mercator
projection
Direct and inverse formula for transverse
Mercator projection
Cont.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
• Coordinate Transformation
• The coordinates of the points on the surface of the earth are
required for performing survey operations.
• These points are known as control points or stations
• The coordinates of these points are determined with respect to
certain coordinate systems.
• The coordinate systems are defined by its axes and origin .
Two dimensional coordinate System:

P (x, y)

O x X
Three dimensional coordinate System:
Z

P
(X, Y, Z)

O Y
X
Y

X
 Coordinate System in Geodesy
• There are four coordinate systems generally used in geodesy.
• Geocentric Cartesian Coordinate System
• Geodetic Coordinate System
• local Geodetic Cartesian Coordinate System
• Planimetric Cartesian Coordinates System
 Geocentric Cartesian Coordinate System
• The geocentric Cartesian Coordinate system is often called
Earth Centered, Earth fixed (ECEF) or Conventional Terrestrial
Reference System (CTRS).
• This system is defined as: Origin of coordinate system is placed
at the center of earth.
• Z axis aligned to the axis of rotation of earth which has the
direction of the conventional International origin for polar
motion (CIO).
• The systems are right handed.
Geocentric Cartesian Coordinate System
Z
(X, Y, Z)
Earth Surface

Y
X
Y

Equator

X Greenwich Meridian
 Geocentric Cartesian Coordinate System

• This system is suitable for mathematical calculations.

• The coordinates do not give any indication that where the point is
on the surface of the earth?
• For example the coordinates are
X = 1208107.3807m Lat. 17 24 12.28N
Y = 5967336.0758m Long. 78 33 17.87E
Z = 1895612.6425m E Height 433 m
 Geodetic Coordinate System
Geodetic Coordinate are:
Geodetic Latitude
Geodetic Longitude
Ellipsoidal Height.

• Geodetic latitude () of a point on the surface of the earth is

the angle between ellipsoidal normal passing through the point
and equatorial plane, positive to north.
 Geodetic Coordinate System

• Geodetic Longitude () is the angle between the prime meridian

(Greenwich meridian) and the meridian plane passing through the
point (observer’s meridian), positive to the east.

• Ellipsoidal height (h) of a point on the surface of the earth is the

distance measured from the ellipsoid to the point along ellipsoidal
normal passing through the point.
Representation of Latitude, Longitude and Ellipsoidal Height
Z

Earth Surface

(, , h)
h

 Y


Equator

X Greenwich Meridian
 GPS Computed Coordinates:
(X2, Y2, Z2)

(X3, Y3, Z3) Satellite in Space

(X1, Y1, Z1)

(X4, Y4, Z4)

(, , h) (X0, Y0, Z0)

Z P
Earth’s Surface

Q Z

O
X Y
 
Y
X
 Relation between ellipsoidal and MSL Heights:

• The geoidal undulation may be positive or negative.

h = Ellipsoidal height
P Topography
H = Height above Geoid h
(~Orthometric Height) H
Geoid
N = Geoidal Separation N

h
h==H
H++N
N
Ellipsoid
Conversion from Geodetic to Geocentric

X 0  ( N  h)CosCos
Y0  ( N  h)CosSin 
b2
Z 0  ( N 2  h) Sin 
a

Where N is given by

a
N
(1  e 2 Sin 2 )1/ 2
Conversion from Geocentric to Geodetic