Models of

Communication
What is a Model?
A diagram
Or a pictorial illustration
Purpose?
To make learning easier
Types of Models

Linear

Interactional
Transactional
Linear Model

Key features
One way communication
Used for mass
communication
Sender sends message and
receiver only receives
No feedback
Concept of Noise
Advantages
Audience persuasion
Propaganda setting
Intentional results
Disadvantages
No feedback
No direct way to know
effectiveness
Important Linear Models
Aristotle’s Model
Lasswell’s Model
Shannon Weaver Model
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model
Aristotle Model
Greek Philosopher
Teacher of
Alexander
(384-322 B.C)

First to propose a
Communication model
Proposed before 300 B.C
Aristotle Model
Key concepts/elements
Main focus on speaker
and speech
Speaker plays a key role
Takes complete charge
Must prepare beforehand
As per target audience and
occasion/situation
Key concepts/elements
To pursue and influence the
audience
Maintaining eye contact
Role of receiver is passive
Widely used for public
speeches in politics
No feedback
 Lasswell’s Model
Communication
Theorist (US)
Developed the
model in 1948 (1902-78)

One of the most influential

Communication model
Also known as Action model
Lasswell’s Model
Key concepts/elements
Have five components
Who: control analysis
Says what: content analysis
In which channel: media
analysis
To whom: audience analysis
With what effect: effect
analysis
Explanation of components
Who: control analysis
Sender has all the power
Says what: content analysis
Stereotyping and
representation of different
groups politically
Framing messages with
hidden motives
In which channel: media
analysis
Selecting proper media for
maximum effective reach
To whom: audience analysis
Understanding the target
audience to be influenced
With what effect: effect
analysis
Effect analysis is done
beforehand. Prediction of
effect of message
Use of the model
Developed to analyze mass
communication but used
for interpersonal and
group communication
Criticism
No concept of feedback
Ignores possibility of noise
and barriers
Propaganda based
More focused on outcome
and media persuasion
Shannon and Weaver
Model
Shannon (US), a
mathematician
Weaver (US), a
scientist
Proposed in 1948
In article, “A Mathematical
Theory of Communication”
 Shannon and Weaver
Model

More technological than

other linear models
Most popular and accepted,
“mother of all models”
Key concepts/elements
Sender: Information source
Makes the message,
chooses the channel and
sends the message
Encoder: Transmittor
Sender who uses machine,
which converts message
into code. Might refer to
machine, directly
Channel
Medium used to send the
message
Decoder: Receiver
Machine used to convert
signals into message
Receiver who translates the
message from signals
Receiver: Destination
Person who gets the
message or destination in
reached
Provides feedback according
to the message
Noise
Disturbance in message,
causing miscommunication
 Berlo’s SMCR Model
Communication
Theorist (US)
Developed the
model in 1960
Based on Shannon-Weaver
Model
Focused on factors affecting
communication
Berlo’s SMCR Model
Key concepts/elements
Have four components
S: Sender
M: Message
C: Channel
R: Receiver
Each component is affected
By many factors
Factors affecting
components
S: Sender
Communication skills
Attitude
Knowledge
Social Systems
Culture
M: Message
Conversion of thoughts into
deliverable codes
Known as encoding
Content
Element
Treatment
Structure
Code
C: Channel
Medium used to send the
messages
Technical machines/senses
Hearing
Seeing
Touching
Smelling
Tasting
R: Receiver
Conversion of delivered
codes into message
Known as decoding
Sender and receiver should
be on same platform
In synchronization
All factors for both are same
Criticism
No concept of feedback
No concept of noise and
barriers
Mostly its not practically
possible to have sender
and receiver at same level
Transactional Model
“Transactional” means that
communication is an
ongoing and continuously
changing process
Each element exists in
relation to all the other
Elements, interdependence
No source without a receiver
and no message without a
source
Sender and Receiver, both
known as communicators
Play equally important role
in communication
Deals with social reality,
cultural up-bringing and
relational context
Non-verbal communication
considered as feedback
Key features
Used for interpersonal
communication
Senders and receivers
interchange roles
Simultaneous feedback
Context of environment and
noise
Feedback is taken as a new
message
Advantages
Simultaneous and instant
feedback
No discrimination between
sender and receiver
Disadvantages
Encourages non-verbal
communication
More noise due to both
sides talk at the same time
Interactive Model
Same as Transactional
Model, both way
communication
But mostly used for new
Media, like Internet
Option to respond to any
communication
Option to exchange views
And opinions
Key features
Used for new
communications, Internet
Slower feedback
Concept of field of
experience
Becomes linear if receiver
does not respond
convergence model
Advantages
Feedback even in mass
communication
New communication
channels
Disadvantages
Feedback can take a very
long time
Sender and receiver might
be unknown to each other
Important Interactive
Models
Schramm’s Interactive
Model
New Comb’s model of
communication
Westley and MacLean’s
Model of Communication
 Schramm’s Interactive
Model
Wilbur Schramm,
Communication
Scholar (US)
Proposed the model in 1954
Put emphasis on encoding,
decoding and feedback
Schramm’s Interactive
Model
Key concepts/elements
Encoding and Decoding are
two most essential parts
Without perfect encoding &
Decoding, communication
Can’t happen
Perfect encoding &
Decoding, ensures perfect
Delivery and reception
Believed communication to
be a two way process
That’s why emphasized on
feedback
Communication is
incomplete and ineffective
in absence of feedback
Individual’s Knowledge,
experience and cultural
background makes impact
New Comb’s Model
Theodore M
Newcomb, Social
Psychologist (US)
Proposed in 1953
To introduce the role of
communication in a social
relationship
To maintain social
Equilibrium within society
New Comb’s Model
Key concepts
Does not include the
message as separate entity
Concentrates on the social
purpose of communication
Considering it as a means
of sustaining relationships
Also called as “ABX” model
of communication
Key components
It works in a triangular
Format or A-B-X system
A: Sender
B: Receiver
X: Matter of concern
A and B share a relationship
X may affect their flow of
relationship
X may be the third persons,
issues, topic or policy
If both A and B are agree on
X, communication will
maintains its equilibrium
If not, communication
Between A and B will be
trouble
 Westley and MacLean’s
Model
Bruce Westley
& Malcolm S.
MacLean Jr.
Proposed the model in 1957
Put emphasis surroundings
for initiating communication
Westley and MacLean’s
Model
Key concepts
Communication does not
start, when one speaks
Instead, it starts when we
respond to our surroundings
We first receive message
from environment and then
responds according to our
point of reference
Not necessary that signals
are intentional
They might be accidental
Signals can be received
anytime and communication
can begin anytime
Can be used in both, mass
and interpersonal
communication
Feedback makes difference
In interpersonal, its direct
and fast
Slow and indirect, in mass
Also differentiates message
as purposive and non
purposive
Key components
Source (A): Creator/sender
Environment (X): physical
and psychological situation
Sensory experience (X1…):
by which, source gets idea
Objects of Orientation (X1,
X2,…): point of reference
Message Interpretation or
Coding (X’): Message
Receiver (B):
Objects of Orientation of
Receiver (X, B)
Feedback (F)
Gatekeeper (C): who filters
the message as per the
needs
Opinion Leader: who can
influence public opinions
Gatekeeper and opinion
leader are parts of process
in mass communication
Gatekeeper: Editors,
proofreaders
Opinion Leaders: recognized
and well known people
Gatekeeping is done in
these levels:
Individual level
Routine practice level
Organizational level
Social institutions
Societies
Advantages
Concept of feedback, social
factors, very descriptive
Applies on all, interpersonal
group and mass comm.
Disadvantages
Very complicated
No concept of noise
Theories of
Communication
The branch of knowledge
dealing with the principles
and methods by which
information is conveyed.
 Hypodermic Needle
Theory
Promulgated
by Harold Lasswell
Proposed in 1920s
Written in the book
“Propaganda Technique”
Also known as “Magic
Bullet” theory
Assumes that the media’s
message is a bullet fired
from the “media gun”
A linear model of
communication
Talks about media’s power
on audience
Explains how media controls
what the audience views &
listens to and the effects
 Linear
communication
Passive
audience
No individual
difference
Most popular in
1930s & 40s
Key concepts
Audience cannot resist the
received message from
media
It creates a uniform
thinking among people
A fixed mindset and
perception is created
Media is the strongest at the
time of crisis
Key features
Humans are believed to act
uniformly to their stimuli
and instincts.
Media injects messages into
the people’s brain as
propaganda & manipulation
Messages have their own
intention and are sent to get
desired outcomes
Effect of messages is
supposed to be strong,
encompassing, immediate
and dangerous
Supposed to create public
opinion & change behavior
Mass of people is made to
think in a similar way
Audience is always thought
to be vulnerable & passive
 Agenda Setting Theory
Proposed by Maxwell
MaxCombs and Donald Shaw
along with G. Ray
Funkhouser
Proposed in 1968 and later
published as an article in
1972 in “Public Opinion
Quarterly”. Revised in 1976
Based on the study
conducted on North Carolina
Voters in 1968 US
presidential election
Earlier reference can be
traced back in 1922
Walter Lippmann expressed
his concern on media’s role
in influencing public’s mind
In his book ‘Public Opinion’
suggested the influence of
media in the setting certain
image on the public’s mind
Laid the foundation for the
Agenda Setting Theory but
never used this term
Key concepts
Mass communication
creates mass culture
Agenda setting is the ability
of media to determine
salience of issues with news
Agenda setting is the ability
of media to determine
salience of issues with news
Setting an agenda is also
influenced by a person’s
perception to certain beliefs
People may believe media
or not but their belief about
an issue makes the impact
So, length of broadcast, its
position and amount of
Information decides the
importance of the issue
Front page news gets more
Importance and value
News on any issue carried
by many and published
frequently gets more value
Agenda setting comes after
gate keeping, before it
reaches general audience
In 1998, McComb added
concept of ‘framing’ in this
theory
Argued, media not only
direct people on what to
think about but also how to
look and think about
Key assumptions
Media distorts reality by
filtering and reshaping
Media concentrating on
specific issues make people
perceive that the issues are
more important
Levels of Agenda Setting
Deciding what common
subjects are important by
using objects and issues
Deciding parts of subject
which are important and
how people should think
about it
 Cultivation Theory
Proposed by George Gerbner
in 1976
One of the core theories of
media effects
Suggests, television has a
strong effect on its regular
Viewers and it influences
them
What they see and hear on
TV decides their world’s
view and perception
TV contribute independently
to the way people perceive
social reality
Key concepts
Watching television
frequently influences an
individual’s mind
Develop certain ideas of
reality or beliefs and
assumptions about life
based on what they watch
on TV
More a person watches TV,
more is likely to get
influenced
TV is responsible for
shaping, or ‘cultivating’
viewers’ conceptions of
social reality
Argues, media generally
presents an image of the
world that’s not all real
Television images are an
exaggeration or fantasy of
what actually exists
There is a uneven number of
handsome gentlemen,
Beautiful women, crime,
wealth and violence
People end up perceiving
the real world in a distorted
Manner through a
‘television perspective
TV offers a surplus of ideas
and conception on various
issues like race, gender,
sexuality
And viewers absorb these
ideas
This constant exposure to
the media content cultivates
specific values, beliefs,
attitudes and desires
It shape their perception of
the world and they
ultimately influence how
others perceive them
People, therefore, end up
unconsciously shaping their
thought processes and
behaviour based on what
they consume
 Spiral of Silence
Proposed by German
political scientist, Elisabeth
Noelle-Neumann in 1974
It refer to the tendency of
people to remain silent
when they feel that their
views are in opposition to
the majority view on a
subject
An attempt to explain in part
how public opinion is formed
She wondered why the
Germans supported wrong
political positions that led to
national defeat, humiliation
and ruin in the 1930s-1940s
It talks about the
relationship between
minority and majority of
People and how they
express themselves
It proves minority people
keep silent on their views on
any particular subject
The one view dominated the
public scene and others
disappeared from the public
awareness
The people fear of
separation or isolation those
around them
So maintain silent if they are
in minority, i.e. Spiral of
Silence
This is seen in media, which
is mostly democratic and
run by the majority
It advocates dominant ideas
and the majority view
Thus, minority does not
voice their opinion and has a
tendency to remain silent
Spiral of Silence
Key concepts
Described in a diagram as a
spiral with two ends
The top end of spiral is the
view of majority which is
wide
Lower end which consists of
the shallowest part are the
views of minority
People through intuition or
awareness know what the
majority thinks
They do not talk out loud
unless they know that their
views conform to majority
And if the views confirm to
majority, they speak more
often and with more value
People with different view
normally avoid telling it to
others
May change their opinion as
well
It happens because of
Feel unsupported by others
Fear of isolation
Fear of rejection
Fear of security
 Two-step Theory
Proposed by American Social
Researcher Paul Lazarsfeld,
Bernard Berelson and Hazel
Gaudet
Proposed in 1944, in the
book “The people’s choice:
How the voter makes up his
mind in a presidential
campaign
Asserts that information
from the media moves in
two distinct stages
First, individuals (opinion
leaders) who pay close
attention to the mass media
receive the information
And then pass on their
interpreted version with the
actual media content
Opinion leaders are quite
influential in getting people
to change their attitudes
and behaviors
Term ‘personal influence’
was coined to refer to the
process intervening
between the media’s direct
message and the audience’s
ultimate reaction to it
Opinion Leader is a leader
for a certain group who
gives details & information
to lesser active persons
In office, managing director
is an opinion leader and in
public, its political leader
They interpret information
to their own group
Those who are not
Influenced by the leaders &
their thoughts, they don’t
support them and get
isolated from the population
This theory refined the
ability to predict the
influence of media messages
on audience behavior
Also helped to explain why
certain media campaigns
may have failed to alter
audience attitudes and
behavior
This theory gave way to the
multi-step flow theory of
mass communication or
diffusion of innovation
theory
 Multi-step Theory
Proposed by sociologist Paul
Lazarsfeld in 1944
Later, elaborated by Elihu
Katz and Lazarsfeld in 1955
This theory assumes that
ideas flow from mass media
to opinion leaders before
being distributed to a wide
population
Its a part of media influence
theory
Indicates that information,
usually from media outlets,
moves in multiple directions
Each consumer of the
information passing on not
only the information but
their own interpretation of it