Unit-II Biological Basis of

Behavior
Dawa Sherpa
MA in Psychology
 Unit Objectives
• To understand the importance of Biology in
psychological understanding of behavior.
• To be familiar with different part the nervous
system and their functions.
• To be familiar with the different parts of a
neuron as well as its types and functions.
• To identify parts of the endocrine system and
their influence in human behavior.
 What is Biology?
• The word biology is derived from the Greek
words ‘bios’ meaning /life/ and ‘logos’
meaning /study/.
• Defined as the science of life and living
organisms.
• An organism is a living entity consisting of one
cell e.g. bacteria, or several cells e.g. animals,
plants and fungi.
 Biology and Psychology
• Biopsychology is a branch of psychology that
analyzes how the brain, neurotransmitters,
and other aspects of our biology influence our
behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
• This field of psychology is often referred to by
a variety of names including biopsychology,
physiological psychology, behavioral
neuroscience, and psychobiology.
 Brief History of Biopsychology
• Philosophers and psychologists long debated
what was known as the mind/body problem
the roots of the field date back thousands of
years to the time of the early philosophers..
• We now consider the mind and body
synonymous.
• Biopsychology is a recent development thanks
to the introduction of advanced tools and
technology for examining the brain.
 Link Between Biopsychology and Human
Behavior
• Researchers also became interested in
understanding how different parts of the brain
control human behavior.
• One early attempt at understanding this led to the
development of a pseudoscience known
as phrenology.
• According to this view, certain human faculties
could be linked to bumps and indentations of the
brain which could be felt on the surface of the
skull.
 Newer Biopsychology Research
• Researchers have continued to make
important discoveries.
• Research on evolution, the localization of
brain function, neurons, and
neurotransmitters have advanced our
understanding of how biological processes
impact thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
 Newer Biopsychology Research
• Understanding of biological processes as well
as basic anatomy and physiology.
• Three of the most important components to
understand are the brain, the nervous system,
and neurotransmitters.
 Nervous System and Behavior
• Nervous system controls all the activities of
the body.
• Both conscious and unconscious behavior of
human being is studied.
• To understand Behavior we need to
understand the physiology of the nervous
system.
Types of Nervous System
 Neurons
• Nervous system plays role in behavior and
experience, it is important to know how it
conducts and processes information.
• The human brain is estimated to have 150
billion nerve cells.
• We will learn how neurons carry information
electrically.
• The connections between nerve cells are called
synapse.
 Neurons
• Information carriers of the nervous system.
• Different shapes and sizes.
• But certain features are similar.
• Each Neuron has a cell body that contains the
machinery to keep the neuron alive and each
has two types of fiber.
• They maybe classified on the basis of their
functioning.(Motor & Sensory)
 Neurons based on Functioning
• Sensory neurons- They gather information from
the environment and transmit them to the brain.
• Motor Neurons- Those that accomplish
movement of the muscles
• Interneurons- can be found in the central nervous
system: responsible for perceiving, learning,
remembering, planning, and deciding among
other important neural activities.
Neurons based on the flow of information

• Afferent nerve: Carries information from

sensory receptors in skin to the brain.
• Efferent nerve: carries information from the
brain to the neurons controlling leg muscles,
causing a response.
Parts of Neurons
 Basic Parts of Neurons
• Dendrites: Relatively short and thick
extensions, like branches, which receive
stimulation from other neurons.
• Axon: Thin cylinder of Cytoplasm which
extends for some distance. Transfers signals to
other cells and organs. Covered by a fatty
insulator called myelin sheath.
• Myelin Sheath: covers the axon, helps in
increasing speed of the signal.
 Basic Parts of Neurons
• Cell membrane: surrounds the cell body, the
dendrites and the axon, that is essential for
the generation and conduction of nerve
impulses.
• Cell body: the machinery to keep the neuron
alive. Which has two type of fiber: dendrites
and an axon.
 Nerve Impulses
• Nerve impulses is an electrical activity moving
along the axon.
• a signal transmitted along a nerve fibre.
• Occurs due to difference in electrical charge
across the plasma membrane of a neuron.
• It consists of a wave of electrical
depolarization that reverses the potential
difference across the nerve cell membranes.
1. The neuron is at rest--there is a
negative charge (K ions / Potassium)
inside the cell, and a positive charge
(Na ions / Sodium) outside the cell.
Pumps work hard, pumping in K and
pumping out Na to maintain this
polarization.

2.Excitatory NTs bind with the

dendrites. As soon as it's over a
certain threshold it triggers an action
potential.

3.The inside of the cell depolarizes,

and the depolarized "chunk"
propagates through the axon.
 Resting Potential
• When a neuron is not actively transmitting a
nerve impulse, it is in resting state ready to
transmit a neve impulse.
• Sodium(+) is the principal ion in the fluid
outside of cells, and potassium(-) is the
principal ion in the fluid inside of the cells.
• The difference in concentration creates an
electrical gradient across the cell membrane,
called resting potential.
 Action Potential
• Also called nerve
impulse,
• Generated when
a neurons
membrane is
changed by
chemicals signals
from negative to
positive as
sodium ions flow
into ion channels,
while potassium
ions flow out of
the cell.
 All or nothing law.
• The change in membrane potential results in
the cell becoming depolarized.
• AP works on all-or-nothing basis.
• The membrane potential has to reach a
certain level of depolarization, called
threshold.
• When a neve is stimulated by a stimulus with
subthreshold AP doesn’t develop.
• If the strength of the stimulus is above
threshold, the amplitude of AP remains the
same this character is called All or None law.
Synapse
The place where an axon terminal
meets another cell is called synapse.
The main function is to transmit the
impulses (action potential) from one
neuron to another.
The cell that sends nerve impulse is
called the presynaptic cell and the cell
that receives the nerve impulse is
called the postsynaptic cell.
Some synapses are purely electrical
and make direct electrical connections
however most are chemical synapses.
Action potential transmits a signal
across a synapse to another cell by
neurotransmitter molecules.
 Neurotransmitters
• A neurotransmitter is
a chemical messenger
that carries, boosts,
and balances signals
between neurons (als
o known as nerve
cells) and target cells
throughout the body.
• These target cells may
be in glands, muscles,
or other neurons.
 Criteria
• Presence of the chemical within the cell. The chemical is
either synthesized in the neuron or otherwise found in it.
• Stimulus-dependent release. It is released in appropriate
quantities by the neuron upon stimulation.
• Action on postsynaptic cell. The chemical must be
released by the presynaptic neuron, and the postsynaptic
neuron must contain receptors that the chemical will bind
to.
• Mechanism for removal. A specific mechanism exists to
remove the chemical from its site of activation after its
work is done.
 Classification
• Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have
excitatory effects on the neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that
the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major excitatory
neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have
inhibitory effects on the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the
neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major inhibitory
neurotransmitters include serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
• Modulatory neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters, often referred to
as neuromodulators, are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at
the same time. These neuromodulators also influence the effects of other
chemical messengers. Where synaptic neurotransmitters are released by
axon terminals to have a fast-acting impact on other receptor neurons,
neuromodulators diffuse across a larger area and are more slow-acting.
 Central Nervous System
• Protected in the bone case of skull and spinal
cord. Divided into two parts
• 1. Spinal Cord
• 2. Brain
 Spinal Cord
• Long , thin, tubular
bundle of nervous
tissues.
• Extends from the brain
stem and continues
down the center of
the back to the pelvis.
• Enclosed within the
vertebral column but
is shorter
 Spinal Cord
• Consists of gray matter, which is made up
mainly of cell bodies of neurons, including
inter neurons and motor neurons.
• The gray matter is surrounded by white matter
that consists mainly of myelinated axons of
motor and sensory neurons.
• Lengths 45 cim in male 43 cm in females
 Functions of the Spinal cord
• Serves as an information highways.
• Pass message from the body to the brain from
the brain to body.
• Independently controls certain rapid
responses called reflexes without any input
from the brain.
 Reflexes
• The automatic actions without our voluntary knowledge is
called reflex actions.
• It is quick and rapid.
• It does not go to the brain.
• Phasic, postural, segmental, intersegmental and spinal
reflex comes under the reflex action.
• Muscular reflexes: Knee-jerk, withdrawal of the hand,
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, salivating, crying, grasping
and tearing.
• Unlearned and innate, universal, and continuous in life.
• Protects from danger and it maintains individual’s life
protecting and maintaining safety and welfare.
 Human Brain

• Brain is the largest and most important

aspects of Central Nervous System.
• Weighs around three pounds which is quite
big and weighty compared to other animals.
Except elephants and whales.
• Control center of the rest of the nervous
system and entire organism.
 Classification of the brain
• The brain has three major parts the cerebrum,
cerebellum and the brain stem.
• It is also classified into three parts
• 1. Hind Brain: Cerebellum, Medulla oblongata, Pons
• 2.Midbrain: Tectum, Cerebral Penduncles
• 3. Fore brain: a. Telenephalon: Cerebrum, Basal
Ganglia, Olfactory bulb and Olfactor tracts
• b. diencephalon: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, optic
tracts, retina of the eye, the pituitary body
 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It
controls conscious, intellectual functions.
• Reasoning, language, memory, sight, touch and
hearing.
• divided into two halves called left and right
hemisphere.
• Connected by a thick bundle of axons called
Corpus collasum, which lies deep within the
brain
 Cerebral Cortex

• Most of Information Processing in the brain.

• Found in the surface of the cerebrum in both
hemispheres of the brain.
• Lobes of the Cerebra Cortex: Frontal Lobe,
Parietal lobe, Temporal Lobe, Occipital lobe.
• The Frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain behind
the forehead. Associated with executive functions such as
attention, self control, planning, problem solving,
reasoning, abstract, thought, language and personality.
• The parietal Lobe: located behind the frontal lobes at the
top of the head. Involved in sensation, including
temperature, touch, and taste, reading and arithmetic are
also functions of the parietal lobes.
• The Temporal lobes are located at the sides of the head
below the frontal and parietal lobes. The temporal lobes
enable hearing, the formation and retrieval of memories,
and the integration of memories and sensations.
• The occipital lobes are located at the back of the head
below the parietal lobes. The occipital lobes are the
smallest of the four pairs of lobes. They are dedicated
almost solely to vision.
 Hippocampus
• Strucure that plays a role in the formation of
certain type of memroies. It plays a major role
in the formation of new memories about
experienced events and declarative
memory( facts and knowledge)
 The hypothalamus
• is located just above the brain stem
• and is about the size of an almond. The hypothalamus
• is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other
activities of the autonomic nervous system
• , including body temperature, heart rate, hunger, thirst,
fatigue, sleep, wakefulness, and circadian (24-hour) rhythms.
• is also an important emotional center of the brain
• can regulate so many body functions because it responds to
many different internal and external signals, including
messages from the brain, light, steroid hormones, stress,
and invading pathogens, among others.
 Thalamus
• Located near the hypothalamus, major hub for
information travelling back and forth between
the spinal cord and cerebrum.
• It filter sensory information travelling to the
cerebrum.
• It relays sensory signals to the cerebral cortex
and motor signals to the spinal cord. It is also
involved in the regulation of consciousness
sleep, and alertness.
 Cerebellum
• is just below the cerebrum and at the back of
the brain.
• behind the brain stem
• It coordinates body movements and is
involved in movements that are learned with
repeated practice. For example, when you hit
a softball with a bat or touch type on a
keyboard you are using the cerebellum
• Many nerve pathways link the cerebellum
• with motor neurons throughout the body.
 Functions of Cerebellum
• 1. Damping Action: Regarding fast
movements, the cerebellum can exert or
initiate breaking impulses to slow down or
dampen a movement.
• 2. Prediction: It helps predict future positions
of a moving eye and stops the eye when it
reaches its final position in less than 1 reaction
time.
• 3. Controls Ballistic Movements:
• 4. Servomechanism: Sequential Movements
are executed without any interruption.
• 5. Comparator Function: The integration and
coordination of the various muscular activities
are regulated.
 Brain Stem
• Sometimes called the “lower brain,” the brain
stem is the lower part of the brain that is joined to
the spinal cord
• There are three parts to the brainstem: the
midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
• The brain stem is primarily involved in the
unconscious autonomic functions as well as several
types of sensory information. It also helps
coordinate large body movements such as walking
and running.
• The midbrain deals with sight and sound
information and translates these inputs before
sending them to the forebrain.
• The pons relays messages to other parts of
the brain(primarily the cerebrum and cerebellum)
and helps regulate breathing. Some researchers have
hypothesized that the pons plays a role in dreaming.
Some of the functions of the Pons are shared by
the medulla oblongata, also called the medulla.
• The medulla controls several subconscious
homeostatic functions such as breathing, heart
and blood vessel activity, swallowing, and digestion
 Medulla Oblongata
• Continued downwards as spinal cord, pathway,
bulb like structure
• Called vital knot because all the nerves of brain
pass through this area.
• Acts as a channel gate.
• Controls autonomic actions like: Heart rates,
respiration, blood circulation, vomiting,
salivation, movements of tongue, movements
of shoulders and auditory functions.
 Pons
• Bridge Between Medulla and Midbrain.
• Middle part of the hindbrain
• Significant role in feeling and facial expression
or sensation and movement of face and
mouth
• Pathway connecting cerebellum with the
cerebral cortex.
• It regulates the respiration system.
 Mid Brain
• Lies between pons and diencephalon. Functions:
wakefullness and sleep and other normal behavior
(if damaged may cause paralyses, coma doesn’t
recover once destroyed)
• Two Parts: Tectum and Cerebral Peduncles
• A. Tectum is superior colliculus: important for
reflexes, movement of eyes, head, trunk, and limbs
in visual response impulses.
• B. Cerebral Peduncles is Inferior colliculus: related to
auditory reflexes. Short part of Nervous system, 2cm
only.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• consists of all the nervous tissue that lies
outside of the central nervous system (CNS)
• The main function of the PNS is to connect the
CNS to the rest of the organism
• serves as a communication relay, going back
and forth between the CNS and muscles,
organs, and glands throughout the body.
 Division of the PNS
Autonomic
Somatic NS
NS

Parasympathetic
NS

Sympathetic
Nervous System
 Somatic Nervous System
• primarily senses the external environment and
controls voluntary activities in which decisions and
commands come from the cerebral cortex of
the brain.
• responsible for all of your conscious perceptions of
the outside world and all of the voluntary motor
activities you perform in response.
• Whether it’s playing a piano, driving a car, or playing
basketball, you can thank your somatic nervous
system for making it possible.
 Autonomic Nervous System
• primarily senses the internal environment and
controls involuntary activities.
• It is responsible for monitoring conditions in
the internal environment and bringing about
appropriate changes in them.
• is responsible for all the activities that go on
inside your body without your conscious
awareness or voluntary participation.
• The two
subdivisi
ons of
the
autonom
-ic
system.
• The sympathetic division
• controls the fight-or-flight response
• . Changes occur in organs and glands
throughout the body that prepare the body to
fight or flee in response to a perceived danger.
For example, the heart
• rate speeds up, air passages in the lungs
become wider, more blood flows to the
skeletal muscles, and the digestive system
temporarily shuts down.
• The parasympathetic division
• returns the body to normal after the fight-or-flight
response
• has occurred. For example, it slows down the heart
• rate, narrows air passages in the lungs,
reduces blood
• flow to the skeletal muscles, and stimulates
the digestive system
• to start working again. The parasympathetic division
• also maintains internal homeostasis
• of the body at other times.
 Endocrine System
• is a system of glands called endocrine glands that
release chemical messenger molecules into the
bloodstream.
• The messenger molecules of the endocrine system are
called endocrine hormones.
• Other glands of the body, including sweat glands and
salivary glands, also secrete substances but not into the
bloodstream. Instead, they secrete them through ducts
that carry them to nearby body surfaces.
• These other glands are not part of the endocrine system,
they are called exocrine glands.
• Endocrine hormones act slowly compared with the
rapid transmission of electrical messages by
the nervous system
• Endocrine hormones must travel through the
bloodstream to the cells they affect, and this takes time.
• On the other hand, because endocrine hormones are
released into the bloodstream, they travel throughout
the body wherever blood flows.
• As a result, endocrine hormones may affect many cells
and have body-wide effects.
• effects of endocrine hormones are also longer lasting
than the effects of nervous system messages. Endocrine
hormones may cause effects that last for days, weeks,
or even months.
Glands of the Endocrine System
 Pituitary Gland
• is located at the base of the brain
• . It is controlled by the nervous system via
the brain structure called the hypothalamus, to
which it is connected by a thin stalk.
• The pituitary gland consists of two lobes, called
the anterior (front) lobe and posterior (back) lobe.
• The posterior lobe stores and secretes hormones
synthesized by the hypothalamus- Oxytocin-
relaxes muscles such as uterus and helps in milk
release
• and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- causes kidney
to retain water.
• The anterior lobe synthesizes and secretes its
own endocrine hormones, also under the
influence of the hypothalamus hormones:

Released by Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Stimulating h
• 1. Thyrotropin rel. h.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• 2. Corticiotropin rel. h .
Growth hormone
• 3. Growth Hormone rel h.
Prolactin
• 4.Prolactin rel. h.
Gonadotropini – Leutinizing h. , Follicile
• 5. Gonadotropin rel. h. stim. h.
• One endocrine hormone secreted by the pituitary
gland is growth hormone, which stimulates cells
throughout the body to synthesize proteins and
divide.
• Most of the other endocrine hormones secreted by
the pituitary gland control other endocrine glands.
• Generally, these hormones direct the other glands to
secrete either more or less of their hormones. This is
why the pituitary gland is often referred to as the
“master gland” of the endocrine system
 • Thyroid gland
• The thyroid gland is a large gland in the neck.
Thyroid hormones such as thyroxine increase
the rate of metabolism in cells throughout the
body. They control how quickly cells
use energy and make proteins.
• T3- (Tri-coda thyroxine)
• T4- (Thyroxine)- increase metabolism
• Calcitonin- decrease calcium
• The four parathyroid glands are located in the
neck behind the thyroid gland. The
parathyroid hormone helps keep the level of
calcium in the blood within a narrow range. It
stimulates bone cells to dissolve calcium and
release it into the blood.
• The pineal gland
• is a tiny gland located near the center of the brain
• secretes the hormone melatonin, which controls
the sleep-wake cycle and several other processes.
The production of melatonin is stimulated by
darkness and inhibited by light.
• Cells in the retina of the eye detect light and send
signals to a structure in the brain named the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
• Nerve fibers carry the signals from the SCN to
the pineal gland via the autonomic nervous system.
• The pancreas
• is located near the stomach
• . Its endocrine hormones include insulin and glucagon
• , which work together to control the level of glucose in
the blood
• . The pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes into the small
intestine
• The two adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. Adrenal
glands secrete several different endocrine hormones, including
the hormone adrenaline, which is involved in the fight-or-flight
response.
• Other endocrine hormones secreted by the adrenal glands have
a variety of functions. For example, the hormone aldosterone
helps to regulate the balance of minerals in the body.
• The hormone cortisol, which causes Cushing's syndrome when
it is produced in excess, is also an adrenal gland hormone.
• The gonads include the ovaries in females and testes
in males. They secrete sex hormones, such
as testosterone (in males) and estrogen (in females).
• These hormones control sexual maturation
during puberty and the production of gametes
(sperm or egg cells) by the gonads after sexual
maturation.
• The thymus
• gland is located in front of the heart
• It is the site where immune system cells called T cells
mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune
system, in which the body adapts to specific
pathogens.
• Hypersecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by
a tumor .
• For example, a tumor of the pituitary gland can
cause hypersecretion of growth hormone. If this occurs
in childhood and goes untreated, it results in very long arms
and legs and abnormally tall stature by adulthood
• Hyposecretionby an endocrine gland is often caused by the
destruction of the hormone-secreting cells of the gland.
• As a result, not enough of the hormone is secreted. An
example of this is type 1 diabetes, in which the body’s
own immune system attacks and destroys cells of
the pancreas that secrete insulin.
• This type of diabetes is generally treated with frequent
injections of insulin
 Reference
• https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-biopsych
ology-2794883#:~:text=Biopsychology%20is%20a
%20branch%20of,behaviors%2C%20thoughts%2C
%20and%20feelings.&text=Biopsychologists%20o
ften%20look%20at%20how,cognitions%2C%20an
d%20other%20mental%20processes
• An Introduction to Psychology, 1st ed., Dr. Ganga
Pathak
• An Introduction to Psychology, 7th ed., Clifford T.
Morgan
• https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Human_Biology/Book
 Possible Questions
• Define nerve impulses.
• Compare and contrast the central and peripheral nervous
systems.
• What is a synapse?
• What is Neuron? Identify the three main parts of a neuron
and their functions.
• What is the resting potential of a neuron, and how is it
maintained?
• Explain how an electrical signal in a presynaptic neuron
causes the transmission of a chemical signal at the synapse.
• What is the central nervous system?
• What is the overall function of the brain ? Identify the three
main parts of the brain and one function of each part.
• Summarize the structure and function of
the cerebral cortex.
• Describe the spinal cord. What is the main
function of the spinal cord?
• Explain how the hypothalamus controls
the endocrine system.
• What is the endocrine system? What is its
general function?
• Define hypersecretion and hyposecretion
• The hypothalamus is the master gland of
the endocrine system. Elaborate
• Describe the general structure of the peripheral nervous
system, and state its primary function.
• Identify three types of nerves based on the direction in
which they carry nerve impulses.
• Outline all of the divisions of the peripheral nervous
system.
• Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems.
• When and how does the sympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system affect the body?
• What is the function of the parasympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system? What specific effects
does it have on the body?