General Introduction and Cell Physiology

 At the end of this session students will be able to know:

• Introduction to human physiology
• Goal of Physiology
 Homeostasis and feedback regulatory mechanisms
 Composition of human body
· Structural levels of organization of human body
· Cell structures and their functions
· Cell Signaling
 Intercellular connections
· Intercellular communications
· Transport of substances through the cell membrane
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 Introduction

• Physiology is the study of the functions of living organisms body

(how cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems function).
• Human physiology specifically focuses on how the human body
works.
• Human physiology attempts to explain the specific characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being.
• Physiology focuses on mechanisms of action (processes).
• Explain how the organ systems, cells, and even molecules interact to
maintain normal function.
• Study how organism perform their vital functions.
• Physiology explain “how” processes occur in the body.
• Ex, How blood glucose level is controlled, how muscle cells contract,
how body temperature is regulated …
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 Introduction cont’d

Goal of physiology:
• Explaining the physical and chemical factors that are responsible for
the origin, development and progression of life.
• Giving understanding the functions of different cells, tissues, organs
and regulation of their activities.
• Physiology is closely related with other disciplines such as anatomy
and biochemistry.

• Physiological mechanisms are made possible by the structural design

and relationships of the various body parts that carry out each of
body functions.

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 Homeostasis and feedback regulatory mechanisms
• Homeostasis refers to maintenance of relatively nearly constant
conditions in the internal environment of the body (homeo = same;
stasis= standing)
• It is maintaining the chemical composition and physical state of
internal environment within narrow limits.
• Homeostasis works by a means of control system to regulate it self
and another system.
• Internal environment of the body is the extracellular fluid (ECF) in
which the cells live.
• Internal environment: body T0, BP, blood glucose,O2 &CO2,
electrolyte balance etc.
•

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

Fig.1. Extracellular fluid (internal

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

• Normal healthy living of large organisms including human beings

depends upon the constant maintenance of internal environment
within the physiological limits.
• Homeostasis is essential for the survival of each cell, and each cell,
through its specialized activities as part of a body system, helps to
maintain homeostasis in the internal environment shared by all cells.
• All cells, tissues, organs and organ systems of the body perform
functions that help maintain relatively constant conditions in the
internal environment.
• Example; lungs for O2 and CO2 , gastrointestinal system for nutrients.

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

Fig.2. Interdependent relationship of cells, body systems, and homeost asis

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

• The internal environment must be kept relatively stable, but this does
not mean that its composition, temperature, and other characteristics
are absolutely unchanging.

• Homeostasis is not a rigid, fixed state but a dynamic steady state in

which the changes that do occur are minimized by compensatory
physiological responses.

• If the internal environment condition deviates beyond the

physiological limits, body suffers from malfunction or dysfunction.

• Example, Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, …

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

Factors of the internal environment that are homeostatically maintained:

• Blood glucose level

• blood volume and pressure
• body temperature etc.
• concentration of O2 and CO2
• concentration of waste products
• pH level
• concentrations of water, salt (NaCl), and other electrolytes

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

• Components:
Receptors Control center Effectors
• Receptors: receives information that some thing in the
environment is changing.
• Control (integrating) center: receives and process information
from the receptors.
• Effector: give responds to the commands by opposing/enhancing
the stimulus.
• An input is the stimulus applied to a control system from a source
out side the system so as to produce a specified response.
• An out put is the actual response of a control system.

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

There are so many homeostatic control systems in human body that

maintain nearly constant internal environment conditions.

A homeostatic control system is a functionally interconnected

network of body components that operate to maintain a given
factor in the internal environment relatively constant around an
optimal level.

Homeostatic control systems can be grouped into two classes:

1) Intrinsic, or local controls are built into or are inherent in an organ
2) Extrinsic, or systemic controls are regulatory mechanisms
initiated outside an organ to alter the organ’s activity (which is
accomplished by the nervous and endocrine systems)

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 Homeostasis … cont’d
• Homeostatic control mechanisms operate through feedback
and feed forward system.
• Feedback: The term feedback refers to responses made after a
change has been detected.
• Feedback systems: Negative feedback & Positive feedback
 Negative feedback:
• Opposes variations from normal
• Response is in a direction opposite to the initial stimulus
• The system is restored back to its original state
• The most common homeostatic control systems.

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 Homeostasis … cont’d
Examples,
Regulation of arterial Blood pressure (ABP)
 a high pressure causes a series of reactions that promote a lowered
pressure
 a low pressure causes a series of reactions that promote an elevated
pressure
Several systems contribute to the regulation of arterial blood pressure
® One of these is the baroreceptor system
® Nerve receptors called baroreceptors, which are stimulated by stretch
of the arterial wall (monitor ABP) found in the walls of the
bifurcation region of the carotid arteries and also in arch of the
aorta

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 Homeostasis … cont’d
*  arterial pressure,  baroreceptors nerve impulses to the medulla of
the brain, inhibit the vasomotor center,  impulses to the heart and
blood vessels,  activity of the heart, & dilation of the peripheral
blood vessels  decrease the arterial pressure back toward
normal
* Reverse processes will be activated during a decrease in arterial blood
pressure
 Other examples of negative feedback
• Regulation of body temperature
• Regulation of blood glucose level
• Formation urine concentration/ dilution
• Regulation of blood Ca2+ levels
• Regulation of extracellular fluid osmolarity (body water balance) and
many others are regulated through negative feedback mechanism
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 Fig.3. Negative feedback mechanism-Regulation of
body temperature
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Fig.4. Negative feedback mechanism – maintenance of water balance
ADH = Antidiuretic hormone
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 Homeostasis … cont’d
Positive feedback mechanism is the one to which the system reacts
in such a way as to increase the intensity of the initial change of the
factor in the same direction.
• Positive feedback is less common than the negative feedback.
• In some instances, the body uses positive feedback to its advantage.
• The feedback signal or output from the controlled system increases
the action of the control system.
• Strengthen or reinforce a change (amplify changes).
• In this system effectors produce a physiological response that adds to
the initial change.

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

Examples,
• Childbirth (parturition) occurs through positive feedback
mechanism
• two types of positive feedback increase uterine contractions
during labor.
• stretching of the cervix causes the entire body of the uterus to
contract, and this contraction stretches the cervix even more
because of the downward thrust of the baby’s head.
• cervical stretching also causes the pituitary gland to secrete
oxytocin, which is another means for increasing uterine
contractility.

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

® Uterine contractions become strong enough for the baby’s head to

begin pushing through the cervix.

® Stretch of the cervix sends signals through the uterine muscle back
to the body of the uterus, causing even more powerful
contractions.

Thus, the uterine contractions stretch the cervix, and the cervical
stretch causes stronger contractions.

When this process becomes powerful enough, the baby is born.

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Homeostasis … cont’d

Fig. 4. Positive feedback mechanism during childbirth

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

Fig. 5. positive feedback mechanism

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 Homeostasis … cont’d
 Other examples of positive feedback,
• Hemostasis or the process of coagulation(to arrest bleeding)
• Micturition
• Defecation
• Na+ inflow in genesis of nerve signals
• lactation
• LH surge and some enzyme production

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 Homeostasis … cont’d

 Feed forward
• Responses made in anticipation of a change.
• Direct effect of stimulus on the control system before the
action of feedback signal occurs.
• Disturb signal or interfere signal.
• Example: Shivering before diving into the cold water
 Significance of Feedback-forward :
• adaptive feedback control.
• makes the human body to foresee and adapt the environment
promptly and exactly (prepare the body for the change).

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 Body composition and body fluids

 The average young adult male body composed of:

 water 60%
 protein and related substances 18%
 fat 15%
 mineral 7%

 Most of this fluid(2/3) is inside the cells and is called intracellular

fluid (ICF), about one third is in the spaces outside the cells and is
called extracellular fluid (ECF).

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 Body Fluid Compartments

• Body fluids: 2 compartments

1. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
– Fluids contained within all body cells
– Constituents 40% (28L) of the total body weight
2. Extra-cellular Fluid (ECF):
Fluids outside the cells but inside the body
Contains about 20% of body weight (14 L)
• Fluid in vascular system(plasma)=25% of ECF
• Fluid in interstitium =75% of ECF
• Total blood volume = 8% of body weight
• ECF also contain ill-defined fluid consists of blood, lymph and
trans cellular fluid, CSF, fluid in eyes, pericardial fluid and
pleural fluid.
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 Fig. 2. Body fluid Compartments

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 Body Fluid Compartments…
• The extracellular fluid contains large amounts of sodium,
chloride, and bicarbonate ions plus nutrients for the cells,
such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and amino acid ,while
that of intracellular fluid contain large amount of
potassium ,magnesium and phosphate ion.
• The ECF is divided into two components:
• Plasma - the fluid portion of the blood
• Interstitial fluid - surrounds and bathes the cells.
 Extracellular fluid is transported through all parts of the
body in two stages.
• 1) Movement of blood throughout the body in the blood
vessels, and
• 2) Movement of fluid between the blood capillaries and the
intercellular spaces between
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the tissue cells.
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 Major constituents of ECF and ICF

ECF
• Major cation= Na+
• Major anions=Cl-, HCO3-
ICF
• Major cation= K+
• Major anions= proteins, PO43-
• NOTE:
• Cl- is not exclusively outside cells
• Many cellular ions can not diffuse out; hence Cl- tends to stay
outside cells

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 Fig. 4. Electrolytes and proteins distribution among the
body fluids
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 Structural levels of organization of human body

1) The Chemical level

 various atoms and molecules make up the body.
 the most common atoms in the body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen make up approximately 96% of the total body
chemistry.
 these common atoms and a few others combine to form the
molecules of life, such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic
acids (genetic material such as deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA).

2) The Cellular level

 chemical components are arranged and packaged in very precise ways
to form a living entity, cell.
 cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit in a living
being.
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 Structural levels … cont’d

 in multicellular organism all cells perform certain basic functions

essential for their own survival.
 moreover, each cell also performs a specialized function which is
usually a modification or elaboration of a basic cell function.

3) The tissue level

 tissues are groups of cells of similar specialization.
 there are four types of tissues: muscle, nervous, epithelial, and
connective tissue.

The term tissue is also often used, in clinical medicine, to mean the
aggregate of various cellular and extracellular components that make
up a particular organ (for example, lung tissue or liver tissue)

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 Structural levels … cont’d

4) The organ level

 an organ is a structure made up of two or more types of tissue

organized together to perform a particular function or functions.

 stomach is an example of an organ made up of all four primary tissue

types.

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 Structural levels … cont’d

Fig.6. The stomach as an organ made up

06/04/2024 ofK. all four tissue types
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 Structural levels … cont’d

5) The body system level

 system is a collection of organs that perform related functions
and interact to accomplish a common activity that is essential
for survival of the whole body.

 for example, digestive system consists of the mouth, salivary

glands, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, small intestine, and large intestine
 it breaks food down into small nutrient molecules that can
be absorbed into the blood for distribution to all cells
The human body has 11 systems: circulatory, digestive, respiratory,
urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, immune, nervous,
endocrine, and reproductive system.
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 Structural levels … cont’d

6) The organism level

 the body systems all together form a functional whole body (the
organism).

 the whole body of an individual consists of the various body systems

structurally and functionally linked as an entity.
 many complex body processes depend on the interplay among
multiple systems.

 for example, regulation of blood pressure depends on coordinated

responses among the circulatory, urinary, nervous, and endocrine
systems.

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Structural levels … cont’d

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Fig.7. Levels of organization in the human body
 Cell structures and their function

 cells, the smallest living entities, serve as the living building blocks
for the immensely complicated whole body.
• Functional unit of an organisms.
• Cells are the smallest units in a living organism that can perform all
the functions of life.
· all new cells and all new life arise from the division of preexisting
cells.
· Rudolf Virchow in 1858 said "Omnis cellula-e-cellula", which means
that all cells arise from the pre-existing cells only.
 the functional activities of each cell depend on the specific structural
properties of the cell.
 Where did the first cells come from?

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 Cell structures and their function

Most cells of human body have three major subdivisions:

1) the cell membrane (plasma membrane), which encloses the

intracellular contents.

2) the nucleus, which contains the cell’s genetic material and

3) the cytoplasm, the portion of the cell’s interior not occupied by

the nucleus.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

Fig. 8. Structure of the cell

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 Cell structure… cont’d

Cell Membrane
· The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane.
· Cell membrane is an extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins
that forms the outer boundary of every cell and encloses the
intracellular contents.
• cell membrane separates the fluid outside the cell called
extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell called
intracellular fluid (ICF).
 cell membrane is selectively semipermeable, allowing some substances
to pass through it and excluding others.
 cell membrane permeability can also be varied because it contains
numerous regulated ion channels and other transport proteins that can
change the amounts of substances moving across it.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

· cell membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with protein.

 cell membrane consists mostly of lipids and proteins plus small

amounts of carbohydrate.

 the most abundant membrane lipids are phospholipids, with lesser

amounts of cholesterol.

 phospholipids have a polar (electrically charged) head containing

a negatively charged phosphate group and two nonpolar
(electrically neutral) fatty acid chain tails.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 the polar end of phospholipid molecule is hydrophilic (meaning

“water loving”) & interact with water molecules; the nonpolar end
is hydrophobic (meaning “water fearing”) and will not mix with
water.

 in water, phospholipids self-assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double

layer of lipid molecules

 the hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center of the bilayer

away from the water, and the hydrophilic heads line up on both sides
in contact with the water.

 the outer surface of the bilayer is exposed to ECF, whereas the inner
surface is in contact with the intracellular fluid (ICF).
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 Cell structure … cont’d

Fig. 9. Structure and organization of

phospholipid molecules in a lipid bilayer

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 Cell structure … cont’d

· membrane proteins are inserted within or attached to the lipid bilayer.

 some of these proteins extend through the entire thickness of the
membrane (integral proteins),
 whereas others attached to only the outer or inner surface (peripheral
proteins)

 the amount of protein varies significantly with the function of the

membrane but makes up on average 50% of the mass of the
membrane.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 a small amount of membrane carbohydrate is located on

the outer surface of cells.

 short carbohydrate chains protrude like tiny antennas from the

outer surface, bound primarily to membrane proteins and, to a
lesser extent, to lipids.

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Cell structure … cont’d

Fig. 10. Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane structure

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 Cell structure … cont’d

Functions of cell membrane

1) Protective function: cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the

organelles present in the cytoplasm.
2) Selective permeability: cell membrane acts as a semipermeable
membrane, which allows only some substances to pass through it and
acts as a barrier for other substances.
3) Regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
4) Absorptive function: nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the
cell membrane.
5) Secretory & excretory functions (transport toxic substances out of
the cell).
6) Exchange of gases (O2, CO2)
7) Maintenance of shape and size of the cell
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 Cell structure … cont’d

 The different components of the plasma membrane carry out a variety

of functions.
 the lipid bilayer serves three important functions:

1) it forms the basic structure of the membrane

2) its hydrophobic interior is a barrier to passage of water
soluble substances between the ICF and the ECF
3) it is responsible for the fluidity of the membrane

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 different types of membrane proteins have different functions:

1) some proteins span the membrane to form water-filled pathways,
or channels
 a given channel selectively admits particular ions
 some channels are leak channels while others are gated
channels
2) some proteins that span the membrane are carrier or
transport molecules; they transfer across the membrane
specific substances that are unable to cross on their own.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

3) some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported

actively across the cell membrane
4) some proteins located on either the inner or the outer cell surface
function as membrane bound enzymes that control specific chemical
reactions
5) many proteins on the outer surface are receptors, sites that
“recognize” and bind with specific molecules in the cell’s
environment
6) other proteins are cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) which are
responsible for attachment of cells to their neighbors or to basal
lamina
7) still other proteins on the outer membrane surface, especially in
conjunction with carbohydrates, are important in the cells’ ability to
recognize “self ”
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 Cell structure … cont’d

Nucleus

 nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle.

 nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except mature red blood
cells.
 most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells)
 few types of cells like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei
(multinucleated cells)
 generally, the nucleus is located in the center of the cell & it is mostly
spherical in shape
 however, the shape and situation of nucleus vary in some cells
 it is covered by porous, double layered nuclear membrane

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 Cell structure … cont’d
 nuclear pores allow necessary traffic to move between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.

 the nucleus contains the cell’s genetic material, deoxyribonucleic

acid (DNA)
 DNA provides codes, or “instructions,” for directing synthesis of
proteins within the cell.

 by specifying the kinds and amounts of proteins that are produced,

the nucleus indirectly governs most cell activities and serves as the
cell’s control center.

 DNA also serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication to ensure

that the cell produces additional cells just like itself, thus continuing the
identical
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Kuma body.
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 Cell structure … cont’d

Nucleus has three main regions:

Nuclear membrane, nucleolus and chromatin.
Nuclear membrane:
• Serve as barrier of the nucleus
• Consists of double phospholipid membrane
• Also contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with
the rest of the cell.
Nucleolus:
• contain one or more nucleoli.
• Site of ribosome production
Chromatin:
• Composed of DNA and protein.
• Responsible for the functional organization of the genetic material.
• Condenses
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 Cell structure … cont’d

 Functions of the nucleus:

• control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein
synthesis, growth and reproduction (cell division).
• control of the genetic information of the cell and thus the heredity
characteristics of an organism.
• synthesis of RNA.
• formation of subunits of ribosomes.
• storage of hereditary information (DNA, RNA) and transferring of this
information from one generation of the species to the next.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

Cytoplasm

 cytoplasm is that portion of the cell interior not occupied by the

nucleus.
 it contains a number of discrete, specialized organelles and the
cytoskeleton (a scaffolding of proteins the cell) dispersed within the
cytosol (a complex, jelly like liquid)

 cytosol is a semiliquid, gel-like mass; many of the chemical

reactions that are compatible with one another are conducted in
the cytosol.
 cytosol is also the site of storage fat (fat droplets) and
carbohydrate (glycogen).
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 Cell organelles

• are distinct, highly organized structures that perform

specialized functions within the cell.
• perform metabolic activity of the cell.
• Performs specific functions of the cell.
 There are two types of organelles present in the cytoplasm.
1. Membrane bound organelles: EPR, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, lysosomes etc.
2. Non membrane bound organelles : chromosomes, ribosome,
microfilaments and microtubules.

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 Cell organelles…
Ribosomes
 ribosomes are the organelles without limiting membrane.
 ribosomes are made up of proteins and of ribonucleic acid (rRNA).
 ribosomes carry out protein synthesis by translating mRNA into
chains of amino acids in the ordered sequence dictated by the
original DNA code.
 ribosomes exist free in the cytosol or attached to the rough ER.
 the free ribosomes synthesize cytoplasmic proteins such as
hemoglobin and the proteins found in peroxisomes and
mitochondria.
 the ribosomes that are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
synthesize all transmembrane proteins, most secreted proteins, and
most proteins that are stored in the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
endosomes.
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 Cell organelles…

Endoplasmic reticulum

 endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is fluid filled tubules for carrying

substances.
 two distinct types of endoplasmic reticulum:
 rough or granular ER (ribosomes are attached to the cytoplasmic
side of the membrane)
• carry ribosomes that represent site of protein synthesis.
 smooth or agranular ER (ribosomes are absent)
• they function in cholesterol synthesis and break down, fat metabolism
and detoxification drugs.
 rough ER consists of stacks of relatively flattened interconnected
sacs, whereas the smooth ER is a meshwork of tiny
interconnected tubules.
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 Cell organelles…

Fig. 11. Endoplasmic reticulum

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 Cell organelles…

* rough ER, in association with its ribosomes, synthesizes and releases

a variety of new proteins into the ER lumen.

® some proteins are destined for export to the cell’s exterior as

secretory products, such as protein hormones or enzymes.

® other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for use in
constructing new cellular membrane (either plasma membrane or
organelle membrane) or other protein components of organelles.

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 Cell organelles…

Golgi complex/ Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi body

Golgi complex consists of a stack of flattened, slightly curved,

membrane-enclosed sacs.
· Golgi complex is prominent in secretory cells.
· modifies and packages proteins.
· it has two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans face.
· reticular vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum enter the Golgi
apparatus through cis face.
· the processed substances make their exit from Golgi apparatus
through trans face.

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 Cell organelles…

Fig.12. Golgi apparatus

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 Cell organelles…

 within the Golgi complex, the proteins from the ER are modified
into their final form, for example, by having a carbohydrate attached.

 The Golgi complex is responsible for sorting and segregating

different types of products according to their function and
destination.
• It causes products to be secreted to the cell’s exterior, to be used for
construction of new plasma membrane, or to be incorporated into
other organelles, especially lysosomes.

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 Cell organelles…

Lysosomes

· lysosomes are formed by budding from the Golgi complex.

· a lysosome contains powerful hydrolytic enzymes that break down
organic molecules.
· they contain enzymes that digest non usable materials within the cells.
· important lysosomal enzymes are proteases, lipases, amylases, and
nucleases.
· the lysosomes also contain bactericidal agents , lysozyme, lysoferrin
· lysosomes digest the organic molecules of cell debris and foreign
material, such as bacteria, that have been brought into the cell by
endocytosis.

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 Cell organelles…

Peroxisomes

 Contains several powerful oxidative enzymes and contain most of

the cell’s catalase.
 peroxisomes detoxify various wastes produced within the cell or
foreign toxic compounds that have entered the cell, such as alcohol
consumed in beverages.
 the major product generated in the peroxisome, hydrogen
peroxide(H2O2), is formed by molecular oxygen and the hydrogen
atoms removed from the toxic molecule.
 peroxisomes also contain an abundance of catalase, an enzyme that
decomposes potent H2O2into harmless H2O and O2
• about half the alcohol a person drinks is detoxified by the
peroxisomes of the liver cells in this manner.
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 Cell organelles…

Mitochondria

 mitochondria are the energy organelles, or “power plants,” of the

cell.
• They extract energy from the nutrients in food and transform it
into a usable form for the cellular activities.
 mitochondria are rod­shaped or oval structures.
• The mitochondria have their own genome.
• Therefore, Mitochondria are self-replicative, which means that one
mitochondrion can form a second one, a third one, and so on,
whenever there is a need in the cell for increased amounts of ATP.

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 Cell organelles…

· mitochondrion is enclosed by a double membrane (inner and outer).

· the two membranes are separated by a narrow intermembrane space
· a matrix contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes that are
necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.
· cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules which are
involved in synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
· the enzymes and other protein molecules in cristae are collectively
known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
· ATP molecules diffuse throughout the cell from mitochondrion
 mitochondria involved in apoptosis
 mitochondria also store of calcium.

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 Cell organelles…

Fig.13. Mitochondria
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 Cell organelles…

Cytoskeleton
 cytoskeleton an elaborate protein fibers scaffolding dispersed
throughout the cytosol.
• maintains the structure of the cell
• determine the shape of the cell
• essential for the cellular movements and
• the response of the cell to external stimuli.
· cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:
 microtubule
 intermediate filaments
 microfilaments

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 Cytoskeleton…
 microtubules
 microtubules are the largest (25 nm in diameter) of the cytoskeletal
elements.
 they are long, hollow, unbranched tubes composed primarily of
tubulin (α-and β-tubulin), small globular protein molecules.
 microtubules are important for maintaining the shape of
asymmetric cells, such as nerve cells.
 microtubules are important for transport of substances from one part
of the cell to another.
 microtubules also play an important role in movement of specialized

cell projections such as cilia and flagella.

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 Cytoskeleton…

Fig. 14. Two-way vesicular axonal transport facilitated by the microtubular

“highway”
in a neuron
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 Cytoskeleton…
· Microfilaments
• microfilaments are the smallest (6 nm in diameter) elements of
the cytoskeleton.
• are made up of contractile proteins called actin and myosin.
• microfilaments are involved in muscle cell contraction, cell
division, and cell locomotion.
• They give strength to the cell, maintain shape of the cell and cellular
movement.

E.g. in muscle cells, actin and myosin filaments are organized into a special
contractile machine that is the basis for muscle contraction.

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 Cytoskeleton…

 intermediate filaments
 intermediate filaments are intermediate in size between
microtubules and microfilaments (7 to 11 nm in diameter).
 the proteins that compose the intermediate filaments vary between
cell types, but in general they appear as irregular, threadlike
molecules.
 these proteins form tough, durable fibers that play a central role in
 maintaining the structural integrity of a cell and
 resisting mechanical stresses externally applied to a cell

 neurofilaments are intermediate filaments found in nerve cell

axons.
 skin cells contain irregular networks of intermediate filaments
made of the protein keratin.
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 Cell Signalling

• is the process by which cells communicate with other cells

within their body or with the external environment.
• Cell signalling occurs by several distinct pathways.
• Multicellular organisms need cell signalling to regulate
different functions.
• E.g. nerve cells in coordinate with muscle cells to help in body
movement.
• Cell signalling can be intercellular as well as intracellular.
• Intracellular signals are produced by the same cells that
receive the signal.
• Intercellular signals travel throughout the body.

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 Intercellular connections
• Two types of junctions form between the cells that make up
tissues:
1). Junctions that fasten the cells to one another and to
surrounding tissues, and
2). Junctions that permit transfer of ions and other molecules
from one cell to another.
• The types of junctions that tie cells together and endow tissues
with strength and stability include the tight junction, which is
also known as the zonula occludens.
• They are present in the apical margins of the epithelial cells.
• The junction by which molecules are transferred is the gap
junction.

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 Intercellular connections…

• The desmosome and zonula adherens hold cells together, and

the hemidesmosome and focal adhesion attach cells to their
basal laminas.
• Functions of tight junction
1. They tie neighbouring cells firmly and thus provide strength
and stability to the tissues.
2. These junction prevent the movement of ions and molecules
from one cell to another cell.

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 Fig. Tight and Gap junction

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 Intercellular connections…

• Tight junctions characteristically surround the apical margins

of the cells in epithelia such as the intestinal mucosa, the walls
of the renal tubules, and the choroid plexus.
• They are made up of ridges—half from one cell and half from
the other—which adhere so strongly at cell junctions that they
almost obliterate the space between the cells.
• Gap junctions also permit the rapid propagation of electrical
activity from cell to cell and the exchange of various chemical
messengers.
• Gap Junctions- permits substances to pass between the cells
without entering the ECF.

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 Intercellular Communication

• Cells communicate with one another via chemical messengers.

• Within a given tissue, some messengers move from cell to
cell via gap junctions without entering the ECF.
• In addition, cells are affected by chemical messengers
secreted into the ECF.
• These chemical messengers bind to protein receptors on the
surface of the cell, in the cytoplasm or the nucleus, triggering
sequences of intracellular changes that produce their
physiologic effects.

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 Intercellular Communication…

• Three general types of intercellular communication are mediated

by messengers in the ECF:
1). Neural communication, in which neurotransmitters are released at
synaptic junctions from nerve cells and act across a narrow synaptic
cleft on a postsynaptic cell.
2). Endocrine communication, in which hormones and growth factors
reach cells via the circulating blood.
3). Paracrine communication, in which the products of cells diffuse in
the ECF to affect neighbouring cells that may be some distance away.
• In addition, cells secrete chemical messengers that in some
situations bind to receptors on the same cell, that is, the cell that
secreted the messenger (autocrine communication).
• The chemical messengers include amines, amino acids, steroids,
polypeptides, purine nucleotides, and pyrimidine nucleotides.

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 Cell Signalling, Intercellular Communication

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06/04/2024 Kuma K. 82
 Transport of substances through the cell membrane

· all the cells in the body must be supplied with essential substances
like nutrients, water, electrolytes, etc.
· cells also must get rid of many unwanted substances, waste materials,
carbon dioxide, etc.
· the cells achieve these by means of transport mechanisms across the
cell membrane.
 Plasma (cell) membrane
–Is selectively permeable
 Generally not permeable to
–Proteins
–Nucleic acids
 Selectively permeable to
-Ions
-Nutrients
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 Transport of … cont’d

 Transport categories:
 Based on structure
 Carrier-mediated
 Facilitated diffusion
 Active transport
 Non-carrier mediated
 Simple diffusion
 Osmosis
 Vesicle mediated(bulk transports)
 Endocytosis and
 Exocytosis

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 Fig. Carrier and Non Carrier mediated
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 Transport of … cont’d

• Based on energy requirements

 Passive transport: does not use metabolic energy
• simple diffusion
• osmosis
• facilitated diffusion
 Active transport: uses metabolic energy
• Involves specific carriers
• primary active transport
• secondary active transport
- symport / co transport
- exchange / anti- port
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 Transport of … cont’d

Passive transport

 passive transport is the transport of substances along the

concentration gradient or electrical gradient or both (electrochemical
gradient).
 it is also known as diffusion or downhill movement.
 it does not need energy in the form of ATP.
 Powered by thermal energy.
 Molecules will randomly move through the opening like pore, by
diffusion.

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 Transport of … cont’d

 substances move from region of higher concentration to the region

of lower concentration by diffusion.
 diffusion is of two types, namely simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion.
 simple diffusion of substances occurs either through lipid layer or
protein channels of the cell membrane.
 facilitated diffusion occurs with the help of the carrier proteins of the
cell membrane.
 simple diffusion through lipid layer:
 layer of the cell membrane is permeable only to lipid-soluble
substances like O2, CO2 and alcohol.
 the diffusion through the lipid layer is directly proportional to the
solubility of the substances in lipids.
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 Transport of … cont’d

 simple diffusion through protein channels:

 the protein channel is the selectively permeable.
 each channel can permit only one type of ion to pass through it.
 the channels are named after the ions which diffuse through these
channels such as sodium channels, potassium channels, etc.
 some of the protein channels are continuously opened and most of
the channels are always closed.
 continuously opened channels are called ungated channels/ leak
channels
 closed channels are called gated channels

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 Transport of … cont’d

Fig.15. A. Diffusion through lipid layer; B. Diffusion through ungated channel;

C. Diffusion through gated channel
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 Transport of … cont’d
 gated channels are further divided into several categories:
1. voltage-gated channels
2. ligand-gated channels
3. mechanically gated channels
 voltage-gated channels are the channels which open whenever there
is a change in the electrical potential across cell membrane.
for example; voltage gated Na+ channels, voltage gated Ca2+ channels
 ligand-gated channels are the type of channels which open in the
presence of some hormonal substances/neurotransmitters.
for example; acetylcholine molecules cause opening of sodium
channels in the postsynaptic membrane .
 mechanically gated channels are the channels which are opened by
some mechanical factors .
examples are, channels present in the pressure receptors
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 Transport of … cont’d

Osmosis
 osmosis is the movement of water or any other solvent from
an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
of a solute, through a semipermeable membrane.

 osmosis can occur whenever there is a difference in the

solute concentration on either side of the membrane.
 requirements for osmosis:
–Must be difference in solute concentration on the 2 sides of the
membrane.

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 Transport of … cont’d

 Facilitated or carrier-mediated diffusion

 facilitated or carrier-mediated diffusion is the type of diffusion by
which the water-soluble substances with larger molecular size are
transported through the cell membrane with the help of a carrier
protein.
Characteristics of protein carriers:
• Specificity:
-Interact with specific molecule only.
• Competition:
-Molecules with similar chemical structures compete for carrier site.
• Saturation:
-Carrier sites filled then the rate of facilitated diffusion is limited.
 glucose and amino acids are transported by facilitated diffusion
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 Transport of … cont’d

Fig. 16. Model for facilitated diffusion, a passive form of carrier-mediated transport
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 Transport of … cont’d

Fig. 17. Comparison of carrier-mediated transport and simple diffusion down

a concentration gradient
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 Transport of … cont’d

Active transport
 active transport is the movement of substances against the
chemical or electrical or electrochemical gradient.
· active transport requires energy, which is obtained mainly by
breakdown of high energy compound adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
· active transport mechanism is different from facilitated
diffusion by two ways:
1) carrier protein of active transport needs energy, whereas the

carrier protein of facilitated diffusion does not need energy.

2) in active transport, the substances are transported against
the concentration or electrical or electrochemical gradient, in
facilitated diffusion, the substances are transported along the
concentration or electrical orKuma
electrochemical
K. gradient. 96
 Transport of … cont’d

· carrier proteins involved in active transport are of two types:

1. uniport
2. symport or antiport
· carrier protein that carries only one substance in a single direction is
called uniport.
· symport or antiport is the carrier protein that transports two
substances at a time.

 carrier protein that transports two different substances in the same

direction is called symport.
 carrier protein that transports two different substances in opposite
directions is called antiport.

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 Transport of … cont’d
 active transport is of two types:
1. Primary active transport
2. Secondary active transport

 primary active transport

 primary active transport is the type of transport mechanism in

which the energy is derived directly from the breakdown of ATP
 the carrier protein in primary active transport acts as an enzyme
that has ATPase activity, which means it splits the terminal
phosphate from an ATP molecule to yield ADP and inorganic
phosphate plus free energy.

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 Examples of primary active transport

1. Na+/K+ ATPase or pump

It transports 3Na+ out and 2K+ into the cell which is not
electrical neutral transport.
2. Ca++ pump/ ATPase transport calcium from cytosol either to
ECF or into organelles( mitochondria and ER).
3. H+ pump – transport hydrogen either to ECF or to organelles.
4. H+/K+ ATPase- one H+ out and one K+ into cell.
- Electricall neutral transport.

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Transport of … cont’d

Fig. 18. Postulated mechanism of the sodium-potassium pump

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 Transport of … cont’d

 Na+-K+ pump is important to control the volume of each cell.

 without function of this pump, most cells of the body would swell
until they burst.
 Na+-K+ pump is electrogenic because it creates an electrical
potential across the cell membrane.
 the energy used to run the Na+-K+ pump also indirectly serves as
the energy source for secondary active transport.

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 Transport of … cont’d
· the calcium pump
 calcium ions are normally maintained at extremely low
concentration in the intracellular cytosol of virtually all cells in the
body.
 this is achieved mainly by two primary active transport calcium
pumps .

 one is in the cell membrane, and pumps calcium to the outside of

the cell.
 the other pumps calcium ions into one or more of the intracellular
vesicular organelles of the cell, such as the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
of muscle cells and the mitochondria in all cells.

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 Fig. Calcium pump
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 Transport of … cont’d
 primary active transport of K+-H+ ATPase

 primary active transport of hydrogen ions is important in:

1) in the gastric glands of the stomach.
2) in the late distal tubules and cortical collecting ducts of the
kidneys.
 parietal cells of gastric glands have potent primary active
mechanism for transporting hydrogen ions by K+-H+ ATPase
which is the basis for secreting hydrochloric acid in the stomach
digestive secretions.
 in the renal tubules are special intercalated cells in the late distal
tubules and cortical collecting ducts that also transport hydrogen
ions by K+-H+ ATPase primary active transport.
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 Transport of … cont’d

· secondary active transport

 when sodium ions are transported out of cells by primary active

transport, a large concentration gradient of sodium ions across the
cell membrane usually develops; high concentration outside the
cell and very low concentration inside.
 this gradient represents a storehouse of energy because the excess
sodium outside the cell membrane is always attempting to diffuse
to the interior.
 under appropriate conditions, the diffusion energy of sodium can
pull other substances along with the sodium through the cell
membrane.

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Transport of … cont’d

 this phenomenon is called co-transport; it is one form of secondary

active transport
 the carrier protein in secondary active transport serves as an
attachment point for both the sodium ion and the substance to be
co-transported.
 once they both are attached, the energy gradient of the sodium ion
causes both the sodium ion and the other substance to be
transported
together to the interior of the cell.
 glucose and many amino acids are transported into most cells
against large concentration gradients by co-transport, secondary
active transport.

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 Transport of … cont’d

Fig.19. Postulated mechanism for sodium co-transport of glucose

 sodium co-transport of the amino acids occurs in the same manner
as for glucose, except that it uses a different set of transport proteins
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 Transport of … cont’d

 sodium co-transport of glucose and amino acids occurs especially

through the epithelial cells of the intestinal tract and the renal
tubules of the kidneys to promote absorption of these substances
into the blood.

 in counter-transport, sodium ions diffuse to the interior of the cell

because of their large concentration gradient while the other
substance transported to the outside.
 two especially important counter-transport mechanisms are
sodium-calcium counter-transport and sodium-hydrogen
counter-transport.

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 Transport of … cont’d

 sodium-calcium counter-transport occurs through all or almost all

cell membranes, with sodium ions moving to the interior and
calcium ions to the exterior, both bound to the same transport protein
in a counter transport mode.

 sodium-hydrogen counter-transport is important in the proximal

tubules of the kidneys, where sodium ions move from the lumen of
the tubule to the interior of the tubular cell, while hydrogen ions are
counter transported into the tubule lumen.

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 Transport of … cont’d
· Vesicle mediated transport
 large molecules/particles like protein hormones and bacteria that is
ingested by white blood cells are transferred between the ICF and
ECF not by crossing the membrane but by being wrapped in a
membrane-enclosed vesicle, a process known as vesicular
transport.

 vesicular transport requires energy expenditure by the cell, so this

is an active method of membrane transport.
 energy is needed to accomplish vesicle formation and vesicle
movement within the cell.

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 Transport of … cont’d
 Exocytosis(emeocytosis):“Cell vomiting “ e.g. Releases of neurotransmitters,
digestive enzymes and some hormones.
• Requires energy
 Exocytosis has two purposes:
–It provides mechanism for secreting large polar molecules, such as protein
molecules and enzymes that cannot cross the plasma membrane.
–It enables the cell to add specific components to the plasma membrane, such as
carrier, channels, or receptors depending on the cell’s need.
• Endocytosis:
–i) Phagocytosis: very large molecules such as bacteria, dead RBC, etc surrounded
by cell membrane and taken up –“cell eating ”
–ii) Pinocytosis–“cell drinking”: invagination occurs into cell and pinches off to
form boundary of an intracellular vesicle, vacuole or tubule. e.g. absorption of
undigested protein in gut of new born.

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