Research Paper Writing

GP - PD
(UG Sem 8 & MID PG Sem 4)

Dr. Dhananjay Bisht

Department of Industrial Design, UID, KU
(11-Feb-2023, 4-5 PM)
 Knowledge
Francis Bacon (1561–1626), considered as the ‘father of scientific
method’, recognized this power of knowledge and stated
‘Knowledge is power’, implying that with knowledge one’s
capability to succeed in life would increase.

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), a renowned philosopher of the

twentieth century, recognized the power of knowledge: ‘We know
very little, and yet it is astonishing that we know so much, and still
more astonishing that so little knowledge can give us so much
power’.
 Research
It was the ‘research’ done by our ancestors on the processes
happening in nature, which helped them to learn many lessons and
draw several conclusions.
Our ancestors used observation as the primary means to understand
various phenomena.
They invented many devices and tools by trial and error.
Discoveries or inventions by accident were plenty.
There were many ‘researchers’ among them who could observe
cause–effect relationships for various phenomena and processes.
They also discovered that under certain conditions, events could be
predicted with reasonable accuracy.
 Knowledge
Knowledge can refer to both theoretical and practical understanding
of a subject, which includes facts, descriptions, information, and
skills acquired through experience or learnt through books or other
means.
In other words, knowledge can be –
1. Implicit knowledge as with practical skills or
2. Explicit knowledge as with the theoretical understanding of a
subject
 Information
Information is knowledge communicated through any media such as
sensible statements, opinions, facts, concepts, or ideas.

Information becomes knowledge only when it is conceived and

understood.
Research: Search for Knowledge
Research: Search for Knowledge

DIKIW: Data, Information, Knowledge,

Intelligence, Wisdom Interrelationships,
Anthony Liew (2013)
 Knowledge
Note that the knowledge known independent of experience is a
priori. It is non-empirical or arrived at beforehand without
experience.

In contrast, a posteriori knowledge is knowledge known only by

experience. It is empirical or gained only after we have firm
experiences.
 A Priori
We consider a priori knowledge as true, because deductive reasoning
is used to arrive at that conclusion using valid arguments. For
example, the knowledge that 7 plus 5 is equal to 12 is known without
direct experience. In other words, we acquire a priori knowledge not
through experience but by reason alone.

Most of the equations in mathematics are examples of a priori

knowledge, as they are self-revealing.
 A Priori
Similarly, the statement, ‘all dogs are mammals’ is an a priori truth.
By knowing the definitions of the word ‘dogs’ and ‘mammals’, one
can use reason to establish that the statement, ‘all dogs are mammals’
is true without the need to examine all dogs for mammalian
characters.
 A Posteriori
From inductive reasoning based on empirical evidences, we gather a
posteriori knowledge.

For example, a statement such as: ‘this leaf is fragrant’ cannot be

considered true through reason alone. You cannot be sure whether
the leaf in question actually possesses fragrance through reason; for
that, you must have direct experience—you have to smell the leaf.
 A Posteriori
Although certain scientific disciplines such as physics treat all
knowledge as empirical or a posteriori, some disciplines such as
mathematics use logic and reasoning.
 General
Rationalists suppose that knowledge is primarily attained by a priori
processes or is inherent, but for empiricists knowledge is a posteriori.

Most scientific disciplines now utilize both a priori and a posteriori

knowledge.

(Heuristics, rules, formulae)

 Acquiring Knowledge
Kerlinger (1986) quoting Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), a
renowned American philosopher, described four methods of
acquiring knowledge or fixing beliefs.
1. Method of tenacity: Probably because of our upbringing and
socialization pattern, we believe and accept certain things to be true.
These are being taught or thrust upon us from early childhood.
Among the public, the more frequent the repetition of the belief, the
more the enhancement of its validity. It may be difficult to change
such beliefs even in the face of conflicting evidences!
For example, many beliefs, omens, superstitions, existing in the
society are through the method of tenacity or beliefs.
 Acquiring Knowledge
2. Method of authority: The authority might be people, institutions, etc.
People often weigh the information passed on to them based on authority.
‘Method of authority’ is considered to be superior to the ‘method of
tenacity’. Acquiring knowledge through authority is commonly observed,
e.g. people are conditioned from birth by their caregivers to listen, trust,
and obey authorities.
In most cases, authoritarian method is the fastest and most efficient
method of transmitting knowledge. It should be corroborated by
evidences and reasoning to consider it reliable.
As far as science is considered, norm must be to accept only ‘experts’ in
their own fields as authorities.
 Acquiring Knowledge
3. Method of intuition: The method of intuition or a priori method of
acquiring knowledge is considered to be superior to the previous two. It
is called a priori method as reasoning is done from what is ‘prior’ or
‘before’. The propositions accepted by the method of intuition are self-
evident.
However, in intuitive propositions, reason is considered as the criterion
of truth rather than experience. It attempts to reason from cause to
effect or from observed fact to another fact or principle not observed
(models, schema).
However, if two reputed individuals reach different conclusions based
on intuition, it would be difficult to decide for sure whose judgement is
correct.
 Acquiring Knowledge
4. Method of science: The method of science or scientific method is
a practical methodology of acquiring knowledge by framing specific
questions and systematically finding answers.
Among the four methods, scientific method is the most reliable. In
this method, the questions formulated and answers predicted are
scrutinised based on observation, measurement, verification, and
evaluation (OMVE). The method of science is based on empirical
and measurable evidences rather than beliefs or arguments.
Scientific method has also the characteristic of self-correction, which
no other method has; in science, theories and laws are revised based
on new evidences.
By ArchonMagnus (Own work) CC BY-SA
4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning, (Trochim and
Donnelly, 2006)
*Belief, Fact https://slideplayer.com/slide/6279035/
Birth of Science
Classification of Science
 What is Research?
The literal meaning of ‘research’ is meticulous search.

However, in popular usage, research is a systematic search for –

• Answering a particular question
• Solving a problem
• Gathering information for a project
 What is Research?
In academic fields, the term research is used to denote activities such
as –
• Defining, redefining, and solving problems
• Observing facts and their interpretation
• Formulation of hypotheses and their testing through experiments
• Revision of existing theories and laws
• Practical application of information already generated
What is Research?
 Types of Research Publications
1. Journal Articles: These are peer-reviewed publications that present
original research findings and are published in academic journals.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EnqfUJMsUaaVxfh-
9y4Pi5LsbOz4RPLp/view
2. Conference Papers: These are short reports presented at
conferences and typically describe recent research results.
https://cpdm.iisc.ac.in/icord23/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
279182704_Proceedings_of_the_3rd_International_Conference_for_
Design_Education_Researchers_volume_1
 Types of Research Publications
3. Theses and Dissertations: These are long, in-depth studies
conducted by graduate students and are often required for a doctoral
degree.
https://projekter.aau.dk/projekter/files/17636215/Process_report.pdf
4. Technical Reports: These are reports written by researchers or
engineers that describe their research methods, findings, and
conclusions.
https://www.gesis.org/fileadmin/piaac/Downloadbereich/
TechnicalReport-ebook.pdf
 Types of Research Publications
5. Books and Monographs: These are comprehensive and in-depth
studies on a particular subject and may include original research or
be a compilation of research by multiple authors.
https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4506/1/
monograpgh%20on%20alpha%20designs-final%20print.pdf
https://design.cmu.edu/sites/default/files/
Transition_Design_Monograph_final.pdf
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/idx/j/jep/3336451.0012.103?
rgn=main;view=fulltext
 Types of Research Publications
6. Popular Science Articles: These are articles written for a general
audience and aim to explain complex scientific concepts in a way
that is accessible and easy to understand.
https://medium.com/user-experience-design-1/design-for-ai-what-
should-people-who-design-ai-know-761e78fdabb
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-common-antibiotic-
could-prevent-deaths-from-childbirth-complications/
 Types of Research Publications
7. Patents: These are legal documents that describe inventions and
provide the inventor with exclusive rights to their use for a limited
time.
https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/74/
d8/36/9d391c61bdd734/USD837464.pdf
https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/40/5e/
16/9555dac6cef6b8/USD906688.pdf
8. Blog Posts and Online Articles: These are articles that are
published on the Internet and may be written by experts in a
particular field or by amateur enthusiasts.
https://minimalissimo.com/articles/flow
 Types of Research Publications
It's important to note that the validity and reliability of research
publications can vary greatly, and it's important to critically evaluate
the quality of the research and the credibility of the authors before
using any publication as a source of information.
 Types of Research Articles
1. Original Research Articles: These articles present new data and
findings from an experiment or study conducted by the authors.
https://www.academia.edu/download/73608771/
Identifying_factors_of_comfort_in_using_hand_tools.pdf
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/12/7/3376/pdf
2. Review Articles: These articles provide a comprehensive overview
of the current state of knowledge on a particular topic and synthesize
the findings of multiple studies.
https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/index.php/preview/
963929/Patel%20and%20DCruz_24_03_17.pdf
 Types of Research Articles
3. Case Reports: These articles describe an unusual or unique case, often in
the medical field, and may provide insights into diagnosis, treatment, or
management.
https://www.dentalxp.com/articles/New%20Implant%20Design
%20Meltzer-Testori.pdf
4. Meta-Analyses: These articles combine the results of multiple studies to
provide a larger and more comprehensive picture of the research on a
particular topic.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25651589.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Adrian-Hernandez-14/publication/
5256903_Meta-analysis_Its_strengths_and_limitations/links/
5ad560feaca272fdaf7c111a/Meta-analysis-Its-strengths-and-limitations.pdf
 Types of Research Articles
5. Short Communications: These are brief articles that report important
and timely findings that are of broad interest to the research community.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2203/dose-response.10-046.Hart
6. Letters to the Editor: These articles respond to a previously published
article and may provide additional information, corrections, or criticisms.
http://hdq.uswr.ac.ir/browse.php?a_id=210&sid=1&slc_lang=en&html=1
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11606-022-07479-4.pdf
 Types of Research Articles
7. Methods Articles: These articles describe new or improved methods for
conducting research, data analysis, or experiments.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26750300.pdf
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?
repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=b4c1f7ddbb3b0c9795224cfc3ad250549696ab12
8. Perspective Articles: These articles provide a personal or interpretive
perspective on a particular topic or set of findings and may offer new
insights or interpretations.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1512087.pdf
https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/274110/1/
Research%20Perspectives.pdf