ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:
The function of the body are regulated by 2 major control system-
The nervous system and endocrine system.
The endocrines glands are ductless glands whose secretion are called
‘hormones’. The endocrine system consist of glands widely separated from
each other with no physical connections. In generally the hormones system is
concerned principally with control of the different metabolic functions of the
body
The endocrine glands control body activities by releasing the hormone
directly in the blood stream.
The major endocrine glands are
1. The hypophysis cerebri or pituitary gland
2. The thyroid gland
3. The parathyroid
4.The adrenal or suprarenal glands
These glands are entirely endocrine in function.
Groups of endocrine cells may be present in organ that have other functions. They include:
1. Islets of Langerhans of pancreas
2. Interstitial cells of testes
3. Follicle and corpus luteum of ovary
4. Hormones secrete by placenta

FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS:

5. They integrate and coordinate various activities of the body along with the
central nervous system
6. They help in the growth and development of the body
7. They help in proper digestion and absorption of food by controlling the
secretion of digestive exocrine glands
4.They help in reproductive functions
5.They help a person to meet stressful situations and emergencies
6. Regulation of body fluid volume and its composition.

HORMONE:
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
Hormones are classified into three major groups depending on their chemical
nature.
• Steroid hormone: for example corticosteroid , sex steroid , mineralocorticoids ,
vitamin D
• Proteins or polypeptide hormones: for example , pituitary hormmones,
parathyroid hormones, insulin, glucagon
• Amino acid derivative hormones: for example thyroid hormones, catacholamines
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONE
The hormones are transported in circulation either bound to plasma proteins like
albumin(steroid and thyroid hormones) or they lie free in plasma (protein
hormones).
The hormones act on the target cell via specific receptor . The receptors may be
present on cell membrane (polypeptide hormones), cytoplasm(steroid hormones)
or nucleus of target cells.
The hormones act by affecting membrane permeability ,gene expression ,
activation of enzymes,and activation of tyrosine-kinase system.
The function of hormone is regulation of various biochemical and metabolic
reactions in the body.
REGULATION OF SECRETION OF HORMONE
The amount of various hormones present in our body is thoroughly regulated according to
their requirement by the following mechanism:
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
This is the main form of regulation, where the plasma level of hormone determines the
secretions of hormones from the gland. When the plasma concentration of hormone
exceeds its requirement,it inhibits the secreting gland and vice versa. Majority of the
hormones are regulated by this method.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

This type of control is less common , where the presence of hormone in the blood
stimulates its secretion from the gland,thus amplifying its biological action. Eg.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (Gnrh) from hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to
produce follicular stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone.FSH and LH stimulates
ovary to produce estrogen. The estrogen will exerts a positive feedback effect on anterior
pituitary so that more LH is secreted. This is called LH surge and it is essential for
ovulation.
HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI OR PITUITARY GLAND
The hypophysis cerebri is also called the pituitary gland. And is approximately the
size of a pea. It is situated in the hypohyseal fossa . On the superior surface of the
body of sphenoid. It is suspended from the floor of the third ventricle of brain by a
narrow stalk called infundibulum. Its covered by diaphragma sellae. Optic chiasma
lies anteriorly over the diaphragma sellae. On each side is present the cavernous
sinus with the contents.
The pituitary is one of the most important endocrine glands. It produces several
hormones some of which profoundly influence the activities of other endocrine
tissue and is sometimes referred as ‘master endocrine gland’. Its own activity is
influenced by the hypothalamus and by the pineal body.
ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH PITUITARY GLAND

• Above: A circular fold of dura called diaphragcma sellae; and circulus arteriosus.
• Above and infront: The optic chiasma
• Below: Sphenoidal air sinus
• Laterally : Cavernous sinuses with CN III ,CN IV and CN V cranial nerves in tha
lateral wall of cavernous sinus.
SUBDIVISIONS OF PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland has, in the past , been divided into an anterior part, the pars
anterior, an intermediate part, the pars intermedia and a posterior part the pars
posterior .
The pars anterior and the pars intermedia, are both made up cells having a direct
secretory function . They are collectively referred to as the adenophysis . An
extension of the pars anterior surrounds the central nervous core of the
infundibulum.
Because of its tubular shape this extension is called the pars tuberalis. This
pars tuberalis is part of adenohypophysis
The pars posterior contains numerous nerve fibres. It is directly continuos with the
central core of the infundibular stalk which is made up of nervous tissue. These two
parts ( pars posterior and infundibulum stalk) are together to as the
neurohypophysis . The area in the floor of the third ventricle immediately adjoining
the attachment to it of the infundibulum is called the median eminence.
RELATIONSHIP OF PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
The posterior lobe of pituitary glaands has neural connections between
hypothalamus (hypothalamohypophyseal tract) while the anterior lobe of pituitary
has vascular connection with hypothalamus(portal hypophyseal vessel). In other
words the secretion from posterior pituitary is controlled by neural signals
originating from hypothalamus while the secretion of anterior pituitary is
controlled by hormones of hypothalamus .
The hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones are:
1. growth hormone releasing hormone
2. growth hormone inhibiting hormone
3.corticosteroid releasing hormone
4.thyrotropin releasing hormone
5. luteinizing hormone releasing hormone or gonadotropin releasing hormone
6.prolactin releasing hormone
7.prolactin inhibiting hormone
BLOOD SUPPLY:
Pituitary is a highly vascular gland . It is supplied by superior hypophyseal
arteries and inferior hypophyseal arteries. The anterior pituitary has extensive
capillary sinuses among the glandular cells. Almost all the blood that enters
these passes first through a capillary bed in the tissue of the lower most portion
of hypothalamus , called the median eminence.
HORMONES SECRETED BY PITUITARY
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
The anterior lobe has two types of cells namely , chromophobes and chromophils . The
exact function of chromophobes(non staining cells) is not known. Chromophils are the
cells which produce hormones.
Chromophils are granular secretory cells and are further divided into
BASOPHILS: This consist of:
• Gonadotropes: they secrete follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormones
• Thyrotropes: They secrete thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH). TSH stimulate growth
and vascular supply of thyroid gland. It increases rate of thyroid hormone production.
• Corticotropes: They secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) . ACTH controls
the growth and secretion of zona fasciculata and zona reticularis of adrenal gland.
ACIDOPHILS: This consist of
• Mammotropes: They secretes prolactin
• Somatotropes: They secrete growth hormone
HORMONES SECRETED BY ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• FSH
• LH
• TSH
• ACTH
• GH
• Prolactin
Regulation of secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Secretion of anterior pituitary hormones is regulated by
hypothalamus.Hypothalamus secrete some releasing and inhibitory hormones
which are transported to anterior pituitary through hypothalamo-hypophyseal
portal vessels.

POSTERIOR PITUITARY
The posterior lobe primarily has ending of axons from supra-optic and
paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus and secretes hormones conducted from
hypothalamus. They are as follows:
1. Vasopressin(ADH)
2. Oxytocin
Regulation of secretion of posterior pituitary hormones
The hormones secreted from posterior pituitary are actually
synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported down the
hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract of nerves to posterior lobe of
pituitary . They are stored in posterior pituitary and secreted in
response to the appropriate stimuli.
ACTION OF INDIVIDUAL HORMONES IN DETAIL
Follicle stimulating hormone: It is a glycoprotein hormone
Actions of FSH
In males: It maintains the spermatogenic epithelium epithelium and
Sertoli cells. It facilitates spermatogenesis .
In female: it stimulates growth of ovarian follicles, recruiting new
follicles in each menstrual cycle , and facilitates secretion of estrogen
hormone.it also maintains ovarian growth.
Control of secretion of FSH is via the following:
1. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone(Gnrh);This is produced by hypothalamus in a
regular pulse like fashion and stimulates secretion of FSH. Gnrh secretion is
reduced by negative feedback of high estrogen and progesterone level in females
and high testosterone levels in male.
2. Estrogen and progesterone: these hormones are produced by ovary . Increasing
levels of estrogen and progesterone inhibit secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary.
3. Inhibin B : It is produced by ovary and inhibits secretion of FSH. Low levels of
inhibin B during onset of menstruation results in increase in levels, of FSH.
Luteinizing hormone:
It is a glycoprotein hormone
Action of LH
4. IN males:, it maintains the level of Leydig cells in testes and stimulates production
of testosterone from them.
5. In females , it stimulates ovulation and secretion of estrogen and progesterone
hormone from corpus luteum . It is responsible for mmaintaining corpus luteum.
Control of secretion of LH
1.Gnrh: it is similar to FSH control.
2. Estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone in male exert negative feedback
on anterior pituitary and inhibit secretion of LH.
3. Estrogen also exerts a positive feedback in middle of the menstrual cycle , that causes
sudden increase in secretion of LH. This is by positive feedback on pituitary. The LH surge
cause ovulation.
Thyroid stimulating hormone:
It is a glycoprotein hormone.
Adenocorticotropic hormone;
It is a polypeptide hormone. Secretion of ACTH shows normal diurnal variation , with
maximum secretion occurring in early hours of morning. It is also stimulated by stress.
Cortisol level is higher early morning and after any stress.
ACTION OF ACTH
It regulates the basal and stress induced secretion of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
It also regulates secretion of mineralocorticoids to some extent and it controls the growth
of adrenal cortex
Control of secretion of ACTH
1. It is inhibited by plasma glucocorticoid levels.
2. Corticotropin releasing hormone(CRH):It is secreted by hypothalamus and stimulates
secretion of ACTH from pituitary.
PROLACTIN
It is polypeptide hormone
ACTION OF PROLACTIN
3. Prolactin helps in the growth of alveolar glandular tissue of mammary gland and
stimulates milk secretion during pregnancy.
4. It inhibits the effect of gonadotropins especially LH leading to anovulation. This is the
basis for natural contraception in females who are exclusively breast feeding their
newborn after delivery.
Control of secretion of prolactin
1.Prolactin secretion is increased by sleep , exercise , stess, lactation and pregnancy . It is
also increased by the release of prolactin releasing factor(PRF) from hypothalamus
2.Prolactin secretion is inhibited by prolactin inhibitory factor(Dopamin)
which is secreted from hypothalamus and by negative feedback on pituitary by
high level of prolactin in circulation
GROWTH HORMONE(GH)
Growth hormone is a polypeptide . It is produced at the rate of 0.2-1.0 mg/day in
adults and has a plasma half life of 6-20 mins.
Action of growth hormone
It stimulates growth of cartilage and epiphyseal plates, thus increasing bone
growth. It acts via somatomedins. These are polypeptide growth factor secreted by
the livers . The primary somatomedins are insulin like growth factor(IGF-I) and IGF-
II . GH itself increases IGF-I.
• Effect on protein metabolism: GH increases protein synthesis of soluble collagen.
• Effect on carbohydrate metabolism:GH increases blood glucose by increasing
hepatic glycogenolysis and glucose outut. It also has an anti-insulin action on
glucose uptake in muscles.
• Effects on fat metabolism: GH increases free fatty acid level and ketone
bodies and hence facilitated gluconeogenesis
• Effect on elecctrolytes: it increases calcium absorption from intestine and
decreases calcium, potassium, sodium and phosphate secretion by kidneys to
increase availability for growth.
REGULATION OF SECRETION OF GROWTH HORMONE
Hypothalamus produces growth hormone releasing hormone(GHRH) and growth
hormone inhibiting hormone(GHIH) or somatostatin.
GHRH is stimulated by exercise, low blood glucose levels, fasting, increase amino
acid levels, stress and by glucagon. These factors hence , increases GH secretion.
GHIH stimulated by high blood glucose and free fatty acid levels , corisols, growth
hormone. these stimuli hence, decrease GH levels.
 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE(ADH)
It is also called vasopressin. It is a polypeptide hormone with a biological half like of 16-20 minutes
Actions of ADH
• Main function: It acts on the collecting ducts of the kidneys and increases the permeability to
water. This increases water reabsorption,thereby decreasing urine volume and making it more
concentrated .
• Accessory function: increase glycogenolysis in liver.
stimulates secretion of ACTH from anterior pituitary to regulate aldosterone
secretion.
• In high doses that is , in pharmacological doses It acts As vasoconstriction.
Control of secretion of ADH
1. Osmolality of plasma: Any increase in plasma osmolality stimulates the osmoreceptors in
anterior hypothalamus and increase secretion of ADH. The potent stimulus of Na+ levels
followed by High blood glucose levels
2. ECF Volume: hypovolemia stimulates ADH secretion and vice versa
3. Miscellaneous stimuli for ADH secretion are pain , emotional excitement, nausea, surgical
stress
 OXYTOCIN
It is an octapeptide hormone
Action of oxytocin
• On female breast: it stimulates contraction of myoepithellial cells resulting in ejection of
milk from primed breast.
• On uterus:
1. It increases sensitivity of pregnant uterus to self by increasing oxytocin receptor in the
uterine muscle. It stimulates contraction of uterine muscle during labor
2. It also causes uterine contractions in non- pregnant uterus during sexual excitation,
which help in sperm transport.
• In males,it may help to propel sperm in the duct forwards during ejaculation.
Control of secretion of oxytocin
1. Oxytocin relaese is primarily increased by stimulation of touch receptors in the breast
especially at nipples. This is called sucking reflex .
2. It also stimulated by sexual excitement.
THYROID GLAND ( THYROID=SHIELD LIKE)

This is the largest endocrine gland in our body . It clasps the anterior and lateral
surface of the pharynx, larynx,esophagus and trachea like a shield . It is a yellowish
brown in colour and highly vascular.
Position
It is situated in front and sides of the lower part of the neck, opposite the level of C5-
C7 and T1 vertebrae.
Parts
It has 2 lateral lobes connected ny a central isthmus
Each lateral lobe is roughly conical in shape, measuring 5cm in length , 3cm in breadth
and 2cm in thickness. The isthmus is quadrilateral in shape.
It weighs about approximately 30g . The gland is larger in females , which enlarges
during menstruation and pregnancy.
Capsule: Thyroid has a true fibrous capsule and a false capsule
The false capsule is formed by the pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia, which
splits to enclose the gland. The pretracheal layer is attached to the hyoid bone and
oblique line of the thyroid cartilage. Because of these attachment, the thyroid
glands moves up with deglutition
Blood supply
Arterial supply
A pair of superior thyroid arteries: arise from external carotid arteries
A pair of inferior thyroid arteries: they arise from the thyrocervical trunk of the
first part of the subclavian arteries.
Arteria thyroidea ima: This unpaired branch may arise from the arch of aorta or
brachiocephalic trunk.
Venous drainage
The veins form a plexus beneath the true capsule. The plexus is drained by three
pairs of veins, viz superior , middle and inferior thyroid veins . Superior and middle
veins drains into internal jugular vein; inferior veins drains into brachiocephalic
vein.
Nerve supply: parasympathetic supply is from vagus nerve and sympathetic from
cervical sympathetic ganglia.
Lymphatic drainage: lymph drainage is to pretracheal upper and lower deep
cervical nodes.
Hormones of thyroid gland
The follicular cells secrete two principal iodine containing hormones- thyroxine(T4) or
Tetraiodothyronine and tri-iodothyronine (T3).
In addition , the parafollicular cells, present in between the thyroid follicles , synthesis and
secrete another hormone calcitonin
Action of thyroid hormones
The action of thyroid hormones are menifested in almost all tissue of the body.
• On growth: Thyroid hormones are essential for normal growth and development. They
promote Skeletal growth , Ossification of cartilage, eruption of teeth, brain development etc.
• Brain and nervous system: thyroid hormones are essential for proper brain development. A
hypothyroid infant may therefore develop irreversible mental retardation
• Cardiovascular system: They increase heart rate , force contraction, cardiac output, and
systolic blood pressure
• Metabolism of proteins , carbohydrates and lipids: thyroid hormone
increase the rate of absorption of carbohydrate from small intestine
2.Physiological amounts of thyroid hormone promote protein synthesis,
nitrogen retention and positive nitrogen balance but large amount can
cause protein catabolism, with increased excretion of nitrogen in urine ,
causing negative nitrogen balance
.Thyroid hormones affect synthesis and degradation of lipids , the degradation
being more than the synthesis.T3 and T4 increase the cholesterol synthesis
• Vitamin metabolism: thyroxine is essential for the conversion of carotene to vit
A in the liver
• Skeletal muscle: optimum amount of thyroxine is required for efficient muscle
function.
• Reproduction and fertility: Normal gonadal functions require an optimum
amount of thyroxine
• Other effects: thyroxine is necessary for normal erythropoiesis. Gastrointestinal
motility, secretion and appetite may be increased by thyroid hormones
 Regulation of secretion

The regulation of thyroid hormone secretion is controlled by the

hypothalamus- anterior pituitary- thyroid gland axis as well as negative
feedback mechanism.
Role of TSH : TSH from the anterior pituitary accelerates the secretion of
thyroid gland by stimulating the steps of thyroid hormone synthesis
Role of hypothalamus: thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from
hypothalamus stimulates TSH , via hypothalamic- hypophyseal tract. In
response to certain stimuli like stress, cold , etc. Hypothalamus increases the
secretion of TSH . The circulating levels T3 and T4 exert a negative feedback
by inhibiting TRH secretion from hypothalamus.
Calcitonin:
It is a polypeptide hormone produced by parafollicular , c- cells of thyroid
gland . Normal plasma calcitonin levels are 0.2 mcg/ ml . It is metabolized in
kidney
Action of calcitonin

It helps to lower serum calcium levels by acting on bones and krdneys in the
following manner:
• Inhibits bone resorption by decreasing activity of osteoclast
• Increases urinary excretion of calcium and phosphorus.
Regulation of secretion of calcitonin
Regulation of calcitonin is stimulated by
1. High serum calcium levels
2. Hormones like gastrin ,secretin
3. Dopamin , beta adrenergic agonist
Its action opposes that of parathyroid hormones, secreted by parathyroid glands.
This hormone is important during childhood , when developing bones undergo
considerable changes in size and shape.
 PARATHYROID GLANDS
These are endocrine glands situated in close relation to the thyroid glands and
hence, they are named parathyroid glands. They are four in number, Two superior
and two inferior.
They are lentiform in shape and resemble the size of a Split pea. Each measures
around 6mm×4mm×2mm.
Superior parathyroid
One superior parathyroid gland is present on each side, near the middle of the
posterior border of thyroid gland.
Inferior parathyroid
One inferior parathyroid gland, lies near the lower pole along the posterior border
of thyroid gland on each side.
Arterial supply
Superior parathyroids: from the anastomosis between superior and inferior thyroid
arteries
Inferior parathyroid: From inferior thyroid arteries.
Nerve supply: It recives sympathetic (Vasomotor) supply from superior and middle cervical sympathetic ganglia.

Hormone:
They secrete parathormone (PTH) with maintains the calcium balance of body.
Parathyroid hormone ( parathormone)
PTH is secreted by the ‘ chief cells’ of parathyroid gland. It is essential hormone for life.
Regulation of PTH
By serum calcium and phosphate levels
PTH is mainly controlled by the serum calcium levels. If the serum calcium is low, the
synthesis of PTH is stepped up and vice versa. Ionized calcium level is decreased when
serum phosphate goes high.
Suprarenal or adrenal glands
Adrenal gland are a pair of endocrine gland , one each situated in relation to the upper
pole of kidney. They lie retroperitoneally on each side of vertebral column in relation
to posterior abdominal wall. They are golden yellow in colour and weigh about 5g
Shape: Right gland is triangular or pyramidal in shape. Left suprarenal gland
is semilunar in shape.
Dimensions:
Vertically: 3cm
Breadth: 2cm
Thickness: 1cm
Sub- Divisions
Each glands has an outer cortex and inner medulla; they are entirely different in
structure , function and development. The cortex developes from mesoderm and
medulla developes from neural crest.
• Cortex: it forms the main mass of the gland. It consists of three cellular zones
1. Zona glomerulosa: It consist of small polyhedral cells arranged in rounded clusters .
These cells secrete mineralocorticoid.
2. Zona fasciculata: It consist of large polyhedral cells with basophillic cytoplasm,
arranged in straight columns. The cell of zona fasciculata secrete glucocorticoids.
3.Zona reticularis: This is the innermost part of the cortex , cells of which
secretes sex hormones
• Medulla: It consist of groups of column of chromaffin cells separated by wide
venous sinusoids. Single or small groups of neurons are found in medulla. They
secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Blood supply
Suprarenal is a highly vascular gland. Each glands receives 3set of arteries
1. Superior suprarenal arteries: They are branches of inferior phrenic arteries.
2. Middle suprarenal arteries: They are direct branches of abdominal aorta.
3. Inferior suprarenal arteries: arise from renal arteries.
These arteries pierce the capsule , supply the cortex and finally end in the
medullary sinusoids. From sinusoids , a single suprarenal veins comes out . On the
right side , this veins ends in the inferior vena cava; the left suprarenal veins ends in
the left renal vein.
Lymphatic drainage: lymphatic drains into lateral aortic lymph nodes
Mineralocorticoid: aldesterone is the chief mineralocorticoid secreted from the zona glomerulosa of adrenal
cortex.. It has a short half Life off 20 minutes. It is metabolized in liver and kidneys and excreted in urine

Action of aldosterone
• Conservation of sodium and excretion of potassium
• Maintainance of ECF volume
• Maintainance of acid base balance
Regulation of aldosterone secretion
• Renin angiotensin system control
• ACTH
• K+ levels
Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are cortisol ,and corticosterone . The circulating blood by binding to
corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) which is an Alpha globulin present in plasma. The
half Life of cortisol is 60 to 90 minutes and corticosterone is 50 minutes. They are
metabolized in the liver and excreted by urine.
Action of glucocorticoids
On the metabolism of body
• Effects on the metabolism of carbohydrat: glucocorticoid tends to increase the
blood sugar level by stimulating gluconeogenesis and glycogenesis in the liver, and
decreasing the peripheral utilisation of glucose but spares brain and heart. They
also decreases insulin sensitivity of the tissue fullstop therefore they aggravate
diabetes.
• Effects on protein metabolism: glucocorticoids favourprotein catabolism that is
protein breakdown and decreases Protein synthesis in the extrahepatic tissues
specially in the skeletal muscl. as a result , there is a rise in plasma amino acid
levels which are diverted to form glucose.
• Effects on fat metabolism: glucocorticoids paper mobilization and utilisation of fat
from adipose tissue thereby increased plasma fatty acid levels.
• Effect on electrolyte and water metabolism: cortisol causes retention of sodium
and excretion of potassium courtesan maintains the ecf volume by providing an
adequate glomerular filtration rate.
Role in stress and information
• Different types of stress like trauma ,surgery ,inflammation, infection,
debilitating disease etc. Tends to increase the secretion of cortisol (as stress stimulates ACTH
secretion from anterior pituitary).Glucocorticoids mobilize fat and amino acid thus making
them available for production of energy and other compounds needed by different tissue of
the body .
• Cortisone inhibits the mediators of inflammation like prostaglandins, leukotrienes bradykinins
etc. It increases the speed of healing process, does helping in resolution of inflammation.
Systemic actions:
• Effects on blood cells and lymphoid tissues
• anti allergic action
• Immunosuppressive effects
• effects on central nervous system
• Action on bone
• effects on gastric secretion
Regulation of glucocorticoid secretion
The secretion of glucocorticoid is regulated by the “ hypothalamo- pituitary-adrenal
axis.
Anterior pituitary: ACTH , in the anterior pituitary stimulus glucocorticoid
secretion.
Hypothalamus: The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid secretion as well as the
response to stress is regulated by hypothalamus. The secretion is maximum during
early morning hours and minimum during night. Different types of stress stimuli
increases the secretion of corticotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus,
which activates ACTH secretion. Thus corticosteroid are interested during stress.
Feedback control: high plasma levels of glucocorticoids exert a negative feedback
action on the secretion of ACTH and CRH.
Adrenal androgens
Dehydroepiandrosterone ( DHEA) is the principal sex hormone secreted from
adrenal cortex. It is secreted in both males and females and has a weak androgenic
activity. Large amount of of DHEA are secreted during fetal life, which forms the
precursor for the synthesis of oestrogen by placenta.
In adult female, it contributes to increase muscle mass, growth of pubic and axiliary
hairs,acne etc. Action in male is overshadowed by testicular testosterone.
Hormones of adrenal medulla
Hormones of adrenal medulla are the catecholamines.
They are:
1. epinephrine or adrenaline
2. Norepinephrine or noradrenaline
3. dopamine
Action of epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Effect on cardiovascular system:
1. increases heart rate and force contraction leading to to increase in cardiac
output and systolic blood pressure.
2. Produces basic instruction except in skeletal muscle and liver where their
action causes vasodilation
• metabolic effects
1. Increases blood sugar levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in liver and muscle
also decreases insulin secretion
2. Increase the basal metabolic rate
• Effects on central nervous system
1. Increased anxiety and restlessness
2. Increase alertness response.
Other actions

1. Decrease gastrointestinal motility E and causes constipation

2. Relax detrusor muscle and contract urinary spinchter causes urinar
ycontinence
3. Stimulates sweating
4. Produce Bronchodilation
action of dopamine
• It produces ionotropic effect on heart increasing cardiac output and systolic
blood pressure. high levels also causes in vasoconstruction.
• In kidneys department causes vasodilation and it is an important hormone
maintaining local perfusion of the kidneys.
Regulation of secretion of adrenal medulla
• Neural control: medula is supplied by splanchnic nerves which secret
acetylcholine. This stimulates secretion of catecholamines the splanchnic nerves
activity is in turn controlled by hypothalamus.
• Sympathoadrenal Medullary response:increase secretion ocas as a generalized
sympathetic response to emergency situation like fear, anxiety, injury, bleeding,
asphyxia
Pancreas
Endocrine pancreas

Endocrine pancreas
The endocrine part of pancreas consist of collection of cells called the The islets
of langerhans there are about 1 to 2 million islets of langerhans, which have a
rich blood supply
• A cells- secret glucagon and constitutes about 25% of total Islets.
• B cells- it secrete insulin and constitutes about 60 to 65% of total Islets.
• D- cells-its secret somatostatin and constitutes about 10% of total Islets.
• F cells- secret pancreatic polypeptide and constitutes about less than 5% of
total islets. There a connection of GAP junction between this four types of
cell, through which they can directly influence the secretion of each. This is
called paracrine effect
Hormones secreted by endocrine pancreas
1. INSULIN
2. GLUCAGON
glucagon is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the the cells of islets of langerhans. It is
also produced from the gastric and intestinal mucosa
Action: it is a hyperglycemic hormone. Liver is the principal target organ. Glucagon
increases hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. It increases the ketone body
formation as it promotes lipolysis it stimulate the secretion of insulin growth hormone
and somatostatin.
Regulation of glucagon secretion
• Substrate level control: reduce blood sugar level is the most potent stimulus for
glucagon secretion and increase in amino acid level in blood also stimulate glucagon.
• Hormone control level: Cholecystokinin , gastrin and growth hormone stimulate
glucagon secretion while insulin and somatostatin inhibit it.
• Neural control: sympathetic stimulation promotes glucagon secretion.
Somatostatin
It is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the d cells of islets of langerhans. It is also
secreted from stomach and the nerve endings in brain.
Actions
Somatostatin has multiple inhibitory action
• In brain: somatostatin inhibits growth hormone and act as a neurotransmitter
• In pancreas: somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon
• In the gastrointestinal tract: it decreases gastrointestinal motility, gastrointestinal
secretion and gastrointestinal hormones full stop it also inhibits gallbladder
contraction.
pancreatic polypeptide
this hormone is secreted by F cells of islets of langerhans.
Action:
• Slows down the absorption of food
• Inhibits pancreatic and biliary secretion
• Delays gastric emptying
• Its secretion is increased in fasting, exercise and hypoglycemia.