Lifespan Development

Module # 3: Prenatal Development

Biological Foundations of Human Development
Learning Outcomes: Biological Foundations of Human
Development
3.1: Explain the role of genetics in prenatal development
3.1.1: Explain the evolutionary psychology perspective of lifespan development
3.1.2: Describe genetic components of conception
3.1.3: Describe genes and their importance in genetic inheritance
3.1.4: Describe chromosomal abnormalities
3.1.5: Explain the value of prenatal testing
3.1.6: Describe the interaction between genetics and the environment
3.1.7: Compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Evolutionary Psychology
• Evolutionary psychology focuses on how
universal patterns of behavior and cognitive
process have evolved over time
• Evolutionary psychologists study a variety of
psychological phenomena that may have
evolved as adaptations
• The theory of natural selection (Darwin) refers
to the survival and reproduction of organisms
better suited for their environment over those
poorly suited
• Evolutionary psychology enhances our
understanding of development through how we
choose mates and achieve reproductive success
Heredity and Chromosomes
• There are two types of gametes involved in reproduction: male gametes (sperm)
and female gametes (ova)
• Male gametes are produced in the testes through spermatogenesis beginning at
about 12 years of age
• Female gametes are stored in the ovaries and are present at birth though immature
with only about 400 becoming mature eggs
• Once a ripened egg is released from the ovary, it moves into the fallopian tube and
reaches the uterus in 3 to 4 days
• Once a single sperm unites with the nucleus of the egg, a new cell with the
combined genetic information from both parents, is a zygote
• Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Heredity and Chromosomes, continued I
• DNA is a helix-shaped molecule made up
of nucleotide base pairs [adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)
• Each chromosome has sequences of DNA
make up genes that control a number of
visible characteristics
• Each gene has multiple variations or alleles
(specific versions of genes)
• In meiosis, segments of the chromosomes
from each parent form pairs and genetic
segments are exchanged as determined by
change
Heredity and Chromosomes, continued II
• Each parent contributes half the genetic information carried by the offspring with
the resulting characteristics determined by the interaction of parental genetic
material
• Genotype is the genetic makeup of the individual while the phenotype refers to
the person’s inherited physical characteristics
• 22 of chromosomes from each parent are similar in length to a corresponding
chromosome from the other parent with the remaining chromosome looks like an
X or Y (XY: male; XX: female)
• Genetic inheritance of traits for humans is based upon Gregor Mendel’s model of
inheritance
• Genes on autosomes (any chromosome other than a sex chromosome) have
alleles and their associated traits are autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive
• What is Inheritance? (utah.edu)
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Testing
• Chromosomal abnormalities occur when the chromosome
structure is altered and includes:
• Deletions – portion is missing or deleted
• Duplications – portion is duplicated
• Translocations – portion is transferred to another
• Inversions – portion has broken off and reattached upside
down
• Insertions – portion has been deleted and inserted into
another chromosome
• Rings – portion has broken off and formed a circle
• Isochromosome – formed by the mirror image copy of a Figure 1. The three major
chromosome segment single-chromosome mutations:
deletion (1), duplication (2) and
inversion (3).
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Testing, continued
• One of the most common chromosomal abnormalities is on pair #21, down
syndrome
• A chromosomal abnormality on #23 results in a sex-linked chromosomal
abnormality
• Turner syndrome occurs in 1 of 2,500 live female births when an ovum lacking a
chromosome is fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome, resulting in a zygote
with an XO composition
• Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)occurs in 1 out of 700 live male births and results
when the ovum containing an extra X chromosome is fertilized by a Y sperm
Prenatal Testing
• Prenatal screening focuses on finding problems among a large population with
affordable and noninvasive methods and commonly includes ultrasounds, blood
tests, and blood pressure readings
• Prenatal diagnosis focuses on pursuing additional detailed information once a
particular problem has been found and can be invasive
• Screening can detect problems such as neural tube defects, anatomical defects,
anatomical defects, chromosomal abnormalities, and gene mutations
• Prenatal diagnosis is intended to enable timely medical or surgical treatment of a
condition, to give parents the change to abort a fetus, and to give parents the
chance to better prepare for a baby with special needs
Behavioral Genetics
• The ”nature/nurture” debate questions the role of heredity versus environment in
our personality
• Most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between nature and nurture
• While genetic predispositions are important, other factors are in part the effect of
epigenetic, above the genome, changes
• Epigenetics describe psychological development as the result of an ongoing, bi-
directional interchange between heredity and the environment
• Behavioral genetics is the science of how genes and environments work together
to influence behavior and can be studied in adoption studies and twin studies
Behavioral Genetics, continued
• Monozygotic twins occur when a single zygote or fertilized egg splits apart in the first two
weeks of development and creates two separate but identical offspring
• Dizygotic or fraternal twins share the same genetic material as would any other children
with the same mother and father
• In the uterus, 60-70% of monozygotic twins share the same placenta (a temporary organ
connecting the fetus to the uterine wall) but separate amniotic sacs (a thin but tough
transparent pair of membranes that hold a developing embryo/fetus until shortly before
birth)
• Conjoined twins: monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined during pregnancy
• Vanishing twins: as many as 1 in 8 pregnancies start out as multiples but only a single
fetus is brought to full term
• Twin studies: a behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the
similarity of monozygotic and fraternal twins
Practice Question 1
Shelby is talking with her doctor about prenatal screening. She wants to know
what will be covered in the screening. Which of the following is not a condition
prenatal screening tests routinely screen for?

A. genetic diseases
B. birth defects
C. cancer
D. chromosomal abnormalities
Prenatal Development
Learning Outcomes: Prenatal Development

3.2: Explain the main stages of prenatal development

3.2.1: Differentiate between development during the germinal, embryonic, and
fetal periods
3.2.2: Examine risks to prenatal development posed by exposure to teratogens
3.2.3: Explain potential complications of pregnancy and delivery
Periods of Prenatal Development
• The Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2)
• The fertilized egg forms a zygote as a one-cell structure
• The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set
• During the first week, the zygote divides and multiplies through process of mitosis for about
7-10 days and has 150 cells then implants into the uterine lining
• The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8)
• Upon implantation, the multi-cellular is called an embryo
• The placenta, a structure connected to the uterus to provide nourishment and oxygen from
the mother to the embryo via the umbilical cord, is formed
• Cells continue to differentiate, the heart starts beating, organs begin to form and function
• Growth occurs from head to tail(cephalocaudal) and from the midline outward
(proximodistal)
• About 20% of organisms fail during the embryonic period
Periods of Prenatal Development, continued
• The Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40)
• Fetus (at about 9 weeks), about the size of a kidney bean
and begins to look human
• By 12 weeks, the fetus has all body parts
• By 16 weeks, the fetus is about 4.5 inches long with fully
developed fingers and toes and visible fingerprints
• Organ systems continue to develop and rudimentary
neurons in the brain are developed by 24 weeks
• The age of viability is reached at about 22 to 26 weeks
• By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed
enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus
without risks associated with premature birth
Environmental Risks
• The developing child is most at risk for severe problems in the first three months
• Teratogens are factors that can contribute to birth defects which include some
maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress as well as environmental and
occupational exposures
• Alcohol: consumption particularly during the second month of prenatal
development may lead to neurocognitive and behavioral difficulties that can last
a lifetime and can frequently result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
• Tobacco: Nicotine levels travel through the placenta to the fetus and has been
associated with low birth rate, placenta previa, birth defects, preterm delivery,
fetal growth restriction, and sudden infant death syndrome
Environmental Risks, continued I
• Drugs: if prescription medication is required, the lowest possible dose should be
used
• Illicit drugs can cause low birth-weight, withdrawal symptoms, birth defects, or
learning and behavioral problems
• Environmental Chemicals: can include an exposure to a wide array of agents
including pollution, organic mercury compounds, herbicides, and industrial solvents
• Sexually Transmitted Infections: can complicate pregnancy and may have serious
effects on both the mother and developing baby
• Maternal Diseases: maternal illness increases the chance that a baby will be born
with a birth defect or have a chronic health problem
• Maternal Stress: Because of a link in blood supply between mother and fetus,
stress can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus
Environmental Risks, continued II
• There are several considerations in determining the type and amount of damage
that might result from exposure to a teratogen
• Timing of exposure: if a substance is introduced during a particular bodily
structure’s critical period of development, damage may be greater
• Amount of exposure: Some substances are not harmful unless the amounts
reach a certain level
• Genetics: genetic make-up plays a role in the impact a particular teratogen
might have on a child
• Being male or female: Males are more likely to experience damage due to
teratogens than females
Complications of Pregnancy and Delivery
• Minor side effects of pregnancy are potentially very uncomfortable and include
nausea, heartburn, gas, hemorrhoids, backache, leg cramps, insomnia,
constipation, shortness of breath, or varicose veins
• Major complications can pose health risk to the mother and child and often
require special care:
• Gestational diabetes
• Hyperemesis gravidarum
• Preeclampsia
• Deep vein thrombosis
• Increased susceptibility to infections
• Peripartum cardiomyopathy
Maternal Mortality
• About 830 women die from preventable pregnancy or childbirth-related
complications around the world every day
• Almost all maternal deaths (99%) occur in developing countries
• The lifetime risk of maternal death in high-income countries is 1 in 3,300 compared
to 1 in 41 in low-income countries
• A pregnancy-related death is the death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year
of the end of a pregnancy, regardless of the outcome, duration, or site of the
pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its
management
• Top causes of pregnancy-related deaths include cardiovascular disease, non-
cardiovascular diseases, and infection or sepsis
• Spontaneous abortion, miscarriage, is experienced in approximately 20-40% of
undiagnosed pregnancies and in 10% of diagnosed pregnancies and typically occurs
before the 12th week of pregnancy
Practice Question 3

What is the number one cause of pregnancy-related death in the United States?

A. Hemorrhage
B. Sepsis
C. Preeclampsia
D. Cardiovascular diseases
Class Activity: Prenatal Screening

• Get into groups and have someone in charge of writing down main discussion
points for the following questions:
• What are the pros and cons of receiving prenatal screening tests?
• Why might some mothers decide not to have these tests?
• Once you have several discussion points, create your argument either in favor
of or against prenatal screening
• As a group, present your argument to the class
Birth and Delivery
Learning Outcomes: Birth and Delivery

3.3: Describe approaches to childbirth and the labor and delivery

process
3.3.1: Describe various approaches to childbirth
3.3.2: Describe a normal delivery, including the stages of childbirth
3.3.3: Examine risks and complications with newborns
Childbirth,
• Birthing Centers present a more home-like environment than a hospital labor
ward with more options during labor and decor meant to emphasize the
normality of birth
• Water birth can help alleviate discomfort and pressure for the mother and can
include laboring and/or giving birth in a warm tub of water

Hospital birth is the most common and

can include either natural pain relief
methods or medications and medical
interventions that relieve pain, such as an
epidural or inhaled nitrous oxide
Process of Delivery
• The first stage of labor is typically the longest with uterine contractions initially
lasting about 30 seconds 15 to 20 minutes apart but increasing in duration and
frequency to more than a minute and 3 to 4 minutes apart
• During the first stage, the cervix dilates to 10 centimeters or just under 4 inches
and take 12-16 hours for first children and 6-9 hours for women who have
previously given birth
• The second stage involves the passage of the baby through the birth canal and
take about 10-40 minutes with the head delivering first and the umbilical cord
clamped and cut
• The third stage is relatively painless when the placenta is delivered and occurs
within 20 minutes after delivery of the baby
• Cesarean section is the use of surgery to deliver babies and may be necessary
when vaginal delivery poses a risk to baby or mother
Newborn Assessment and Risks
• The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) assesses the baby’s motor
development, muscle tone, and stress response
• APGAR: conducted 1 to 5 minutes after birth and measures the heart rate,
respiration, muscle tone, reflex response, and color on a score of 0 to 2 with any
total scores 5 or under being a cause for concern
• Low birth weight is less than 5.8 pounds, resulting in difficulty maintaining body
temperature and higher infection risk
• Premature birth is less than 37 weeks gestation and can be triggered by anything
that disrupts the mother’s system
• A lack of adequate (hypoxia) or complete (apoxia) oxygen shortly after birth can
lead to brain damage and other disorders and is typically caused by umbilical
cord problems, birth canal problems, blocked airways, and placenta abruption
Practice Question 4

Which stage of labor is typically the longest?

A. The first stage

B. The second stage
C. The third stage
D. They are all the same length