Digital fundamental systems and

Logic Designs
 Introduction to Digital Systems

• Digital systems are designed to store, process,

and communicate information in digital form.
They are found in a wide range of applications,
including process control, communication
systems, digital instruments, and consumer
products. The digital computer, more
commonly called the computer, is an example
of a typical digital system.
• A computer manipulates information in digital, or more
precisely, binary form. A binary number has only two
discrete values — zero or one.
• Each of these discrete values is represented by the OFF
and ON status of an electronic switch called a transistor.
• All computers, therefore, only understand binary
numbers.
• Any decimal number (base 10, with ten digits from 0 to
9) can be represented by a binary number (base 2, with
digits 0 and 1).
• The basic blocks of a computer are the central
processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the
input/output (I/O).
• The CPU of the computer is basically the same
as the brain of a human. Computer memory is
conceptually similar to human memory.
• A question asked to a human is analogous to
entering a program into the computer using an
input device such as the keyboard, and answering
the question by the human is similar in concept to
outputting the result required by the program to a
computer output device such as the printer. The
main difference is that human beings can think
independently, whereas computers can only
answer questions that they are programmed for.
Computer hardware refers ...
Implementation of Boolean Functions using Logic Gates

• In this tutorial, we will learn about the

Implementation of Boolean Functions using Logic
Gates.
• In our previous tutorial, we learned about the
Boolean Algebra Laws and associated theorems.
We also learned that the Boolean Functions can be
represented easily in SOP (sum of products) form
and POS (product of sums) form. To represent
these standardized equations logically, we use the
logic gates.
• Any Boolean function can be represented by
using a number of logic gates by properly
interconnecting them.
• Logic gates implementation or logic
representation of Boolean functions is a very
simple and easy form.
• The implementation of Boolean functions by
using logic gates involves connecting output of
one logic gate to the input of another gate.
Commonly used Logic Gates are: AND, OR,
NAND and NOR gates.

• Let’s have a look into the logic gate

implementation of SOP and POS forms of
Boolean functions.
• A Brief Introduction to Logic Gates
• Logic Gates are the basic building blocks of
digital electronic circuits. A Logic Gate is a
piece of electronic circuit, that can be used to
implement Boolean Expressions.
• While Laws and Theorems of Boolean Logic
are used to manipulate the Boolean
Expressions, Logic Gates are used to
implement these Boolean Expressions in
Digital Electronics.
• AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate are the three
basic logic gates used in digital electronics.
Using these basic logic gates, other Logic
Gates like NAND, NOR, Exclusive OR (Ex-OR)
and Exclusive NOR (Ex-NOR) are derived.

• .
• Before seeing the implementation of Boolean
Functions using Logic Gates, let us quickly
recap some basics about the important logic
gates
 AND Gate

• Logic AND gate is a basic logic gate, with two or more

inputs and one output.
• The output of an AND gate is HIGH only if all the
inputs of the gate are HIGH.
• The output for all the other cases of the inputs is LOW.
(ie if any input is low or both are low)
• The logic symbol and the truth table of an AND gate is
shown below.

• AND Symbol
AND GATE SYMBOL
• If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two inputs of an AND
Gate, the output expression is written as:

• Y = A . B or Y = A B

• It is read as “Y EQUALS A AND B”.

 OR Gate

• The OR Gate is used to preform logical ‘OR’

operation.
• OR Gate also contains two or more inputs and
one output.
• The output of an OR gate is HIGH if either of the
inputs are HIGH.
• The output is LOW when all the inputs are LOW.
• The logic symbol and the truth table of an OR
gate is shown below.
OR GATE SYMBOL
• If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two inputs of an OR Gate,
the output expression is written as:

• Y=A+B

• It is read as “Y EQUALS A OR B”.

 NOT Gate

• Logic NOT gate is another basic logic gate with

one input and one output.
• The output of the NOT Gate is always the
complement of the input.
• If the input is HIGH, the output is LOW and if
the input is LOW, the output is HIGH.
• The logic symbol and the truth table of a NOT
gate is shown below.
NOT GATE SYMBOL
 SOP Boolean Function Implementation using Logic
Gates

• The sum of product or SOP form is represented by

using basic logic gates: AND gate and OR gate.
• The SOP form implementation will have AND gates
at its input side and as the output of the function is
the sum of all product terms, it has an OR gate at its
output side.

• An important thing to remember is that we use NOT

gate to represent the inverse or complement of the
variables.
Sum of Products (SOP)
 Implementation for 2 Input Variables

• Let us understand how we can implement the following

Boolean function using basic logic gates.

• F = A B + A BI

• In the given SOP function, we have one compliment term, B.

• So, to represent the compliment input, we are using the
NOT gates at the input side.
• To represent the product term, we use AND gates.
• See the given logic diagram for representation of the
Boolean function.
 Implementation for 3 Input Variables

• Let us now see how to implement the following Boolean function

by using basic logic gates. It is a 3 input variable function.

• F = A B C + A I B C + A B I CI

• In the given function, we have two compliment terms, A and C.

• So, to represent the compliment input, we are using the NOT
gates at the input side.
• And to represent the product term, we use AND gates.
• See the below given logic diagram for representation of the
Boolean function.
Implementation for 3 Input Variables
 POS Boolean Function Implementation using Logic
Gates

• The product of sums or POS form can be

represented by using basic logic gates like AND gate
and OR gates.
• The POS form implementation will have the OR
gate at its input side and as the output of the
function is product of all sum terms, it has AND
gate at its output side.
• In POS form implementation, we use NOT gate to
represent the inverse or complement of the
variables.
PRODUCT OF SUM
 Implementation for 2 Input Variables

• Let us now see how to implement the following

Boolean function by using basic logic gates.

• F = (A + B) . (A + B)

• In the given function, we have a complement term, B.

So, to represent the compliment input, we are using
the NOT gates at the input side. And to represent the
sum term, we use OR gates. See the below logic
diagram for representation of the Boolean function.
 Implementation for 3 Input Variables

• Implement the Boolean function by using basic logic

gates.

• F = (A + B + C) . (A + B +C) . (A + B + C)

• In the given Boolean Function, we have two compliment

terms, A and B. So, to represent the compliment input, we
are using the NOT gates at the input side. And to
represent the sum term, we use OR gates. See the below
given logic diagram for representation of the Boolean
function.
• Implementation of Boolean functions using
Universal Logic Gates
• NAND gate and NOR gate are considered to be
‘Universal Logic Gates’. The reason behind this is,
NAND gate and NOR gate can perform (or can
function like) all the 3 basic gates, such as AND
gate, OR gate and NOT gate. We can design any
basic logic gate by using NAND gate or NOR gate.
This is why they are called as “Universal Gates”.
• Let us see the implementation of the Boolean functions using
universal logic gates.

• Implementation of Boolean functions using NAND gates

• NAND gate is a logical combination of AND gate and NOT gate
and this can function like AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate. So,
we use NAND gates to implement the Boolean function.

• The important thing to remember about NAND gate is this is

the inverse of basic AND gate. This means the output of the
NAND gate is equal to the complement of the output of the
AND gate.
• Let’s see an example to understand the implementation.

• Implement the Boolean function by using a NAND logic gate.

• F (A, B, C, D, E) = A + (B + C) (D + BE)

• In NAND gate implementation, we use NAND gates at both input and output
side. Observe the designed logic diagram below. The step by step procedure
to implement the given Boolean function using NAND gates is shown below.

• First, the given Boolean function or equation should be represented using

AND-OR gates. The AND-OR implementation is shown below.
• In order to convert the AND gates into NAND
gates, a bubble (complement) is introduced at
the output of the AND gate. To compensate
the bubble, the input of the next gate is also
introduced with a bubble. The implementation
is shown below.
• To impose uniformity at the input, if a gate has
one input with a bubble, the other input is
also introduced with a bubble. Again, in order
to compensate the bubble, the output of the
preceding gate is introduced with bubble or
complement the literal. The same is shown in
the following figure.
• If an OR gate is not having any bubble at either
of the inputs, bubbles are introduced and are
appropriately compensated as shown in the
figure below.
• An OR gate with two complemented inputs is
equivalent to a NAND gate (according to
DeMorgan’s Law A’+B’ = (AB)’). Hence,
replacing the OR gate, which is having two
complemented inputs, with NAND gate, we
get the final structure of the implementation
of the Boolean function using NAND gates.
The final implementation is shown below.
• Implementation of Boolean functions using NOR
gates
• NOR gate is the combination of OR gate and NOT
gate and this can function like AND gate, OR gate
and NOT gate.
• So, we use NOR gate to implement the Boolean
functions. The important thing to remember about
NOR gate is it is the inverse of basic OR gate.
• This means the output of the NOR gate is equal to
the complement of the output of the OR gate.
• Let’s see an example to understand the
implementation.
• Implement the Boolean function by using NOR logic gate.

• g (A, B, C, D, E, F) = (A E) + (B D E) + (B C E F)

• We can rewrite the given equation as:

• g (A, B, C, D, E, F) = A E + B D E + B C E F

• = (A + B D + B C F) E

• = (A + B (D + C F)) E

• In NOR gate implementation, we use NOR gates at both input

and output side. Observe the designed logic diagram below.