Introduction to Digital Concepts

BE (22EC001) 1
 Introduction to Digital Concepts

•Introduction to Digital Concepts:

– Digital and Analog systems, logic levels & Pulse waveform.

•Logic Gates:
– And Gate, OR Gate, Not gate, Universal Gates, Exclusive–OR gate,
Exclusive-NOR gate

•Number systems:
– Decimal number system, Binary number system, Representation of
signed numbers, Octal number system, Hexadecimal number system.

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Analog and Digital Signals

Analog Signal Digital Signal

• Continuous
• Infinite range of values • Discrete
• Represented by sine wave • Finite range of values (2)
• Represented by square wave

•Example: The output voltage from an

audio amplifier might be any one of the •Digital circuits are often called switching circuits
infinite values between -10V and +10V at because the voltage levels in a digital circuit are
any particular instant of time. assumed to be switched from one value to another
instantaneously.
•Other examples: Radio frequency •Eg: Digital thermometer
transmitter and receivers, power supplies On- off switch
etc.
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Logic Levels

Digital systems use the binary number system.

• Two binary digits 0 and 1 are represented by two different voltage levels,
LOW and HIGH.
• Normally, 0 → 0V
1→ +5V

There are 2 types of logic systems:

• Positive logic system: 1 →+5V (HIGH)
0 →0V (LOW)
• Negative Logic System: 0 → +5V (HIGH)
1 → 0V (LOW)

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Pulse Waveforms

⮚ A pulse has two edges:

• Leading edge :- For positive pulse: Positive going transition (Rising edge)
For negative pulse: Negative going transition (Falling edge)
• Trailing edge:- For positive pulse: Negative going transition (Falling edge)
For negative pulse: Positive going transition (Rising edge)

Leading Trailing Leading Trailing

edge edge edge edge

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Binary Signals

• It means two-states
– 1 and 0
– true and false
– on and off
• A single “on/off”, “true/false”, “1/0” is called a bit
• Example: Toggle switch

• Computers makes use of binary signals as these signals can be

represented with a transistor that is relatively easy to fabricate (in silicon)
Millions of them can be put in a tiny chip

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Logic Gates

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Logic Gates
⮚ Logic gates are the building blocks used to create digital circuits.

⮚ It is an electronic circuit that performs logical operations on one or more

logical inputs to produce a single logical output.

⮚ Types of Logic Gates:

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Notational methods for describing the behaviour of gates
and circuits

There are four different, but equally powerful, notational methods for describing the behaviour
of gates and circuits
⮚ Definition
⮚ Symbol
⮚ Boolean expression
⮚ Logic diagrams
⮚ Truth tables
⮚ Timing Diagram

▪ Boolean expression: It is a mathematical equation showing the relationship between the

input and the output variables. Eg: Y= A+B

▪ Logic diagram: a graphical representation of a circuit representing a particular function..

– Each type of gate is represented by a specific graphical symbol.

▪ Truth table: defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input combinations that
the gate could encounter, and the corresponding output.

▪ Timing diagram: A digital timing diagram is a representation of set of signals in the time
domain as waveforms.

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AND Gate( Multiplication function)

⮚ It is a digital electronic circuit which has 2 or more inputs and a single output
where the output of AND gate is high when all inputs are high, otherwise the
output will be low.

⮚ The expression X=A.B is read as “X equals A AND B.”

Timing
Diagram

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 Review Questions:

▪ What is the only input combination that will produce a HIGH at the output of a
five-input AND gate?
– all 5 inputs = 1

▪ What logic level should be applied to the second input of a two-input AND
gate if the logic signal at the first input is to be inhibited(prevented) from
reaching the output?
– A LOW input will keep the output LOW

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OR Gate (Logical Addition Function)
⮚ It is a digital electronic circuit which has 2 or more inputs and a
single output where the output of OR gate is Low when all inputs are
low, else output will be high.
⮚ The expression X=A+B is read as “X equals A OR B”

Timing Diagram

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Review Questions:

▪ What is the only set of input conditions that will produce a LOW output for any
OR gate?
– all inputs LOW

▪ Write the Boolean expression for a six-input OR gate

– X=A+B+C+D+E+F

▪ If the A input in previous example is permanently kept at the 1 level, what will
the resultant output waveform be?
– constant HIGH

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Not Gate (Inverter)

⮚ The inverter (NOT circuit) performs the operation called inversion or

complementation.
⮚ The NOT operation changes one logic level to the opposite logical level. When the
input is Low, the output is high. When the input is high, the output is low.

Timing
Diagram

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NAND Gate
⮚ NAND gate is of the popular logic circuit because it can be used as a universal
gate; that is NAND gate can be used in combination to perform the AND, OR,
and inverter operations.
⮚ It is constructed by attaching NOT Gate at the output of AND Gate, hence
NAND Gate is called NOT- AND Gate.
⮚ The output of NAND gate is low when all inputs are high, else output is high.

Timing
Diagram

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NOR Gate
⮚ NOR gate is also useful logical element because it can also be used as a
universal gate.
⮚ It can be used in combination to perform the AND, OR and Inverter operations.
⮚ NOR Gate is the combination of NOT gate at the output of OR gate, hence
NOR gate is type of NOT-OR gate.
⮚ The Output of NOR gate is high when all inputs are low otherwise the output is
low.

Timing
Diagram

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Exclusive- OR Gate

⮚ Exclusive-OR gate is a logical operation that outputs true only when

inputs differ (one is true, the other is false).
⮚ If both inputs are Low or both are High then it produces the output
Low or 0, otherwise it produces the High output.
⮚ The exclusive-OR gate has a graphical symbol similar to that of the
OR gate, except for the additional curved line on the input side.

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Exclusive-NOR Gate

⮚ The exclusive-NOR gate is the complement of the exclusive-OR

gate, as indicated by small circle on the output side of the graphic
symbol.
⮚ If both inputs are Low or both are High then it produces the output
High or 1, otherwise it produces the Low output.

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Universal Gates

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NAND Gate
as
Universal Gate

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NAND Gate as a NOT Gate

A X = A. A = A

Truth Table
Input Output
A X
0 1
1 0

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NAND Gate as an AND Gate

AB
A
B
X=AB=AB

NAND Gate Inverter

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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NAND Gate as an OR Gate

A B
X=AB=A+B=A+B
B

NAND
Inverters
Gate

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1 23
 NOR Gate
As
Universal Gate

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NOR Gate as a NOT Gate

A+A=A
(Before Bubble)
A X=A

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A X
0 1
1 0

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NOR Gate as an AND Gate

A B
X=A+B=AB=AB
B

“Inverters” NOR Gate

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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NOR Gate as an OR Gate

A+B
A

B X=A+B=A+
B
NOR Gate “Inverter”

Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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 Describing Logic Circuits
Algebraically

⮚ Any logic circuit, no matter how complex, can be completely described

using the three basic Boolean operations: OR, AND, NOT.
⮚ Example: Logic circuit with its Boolean expression

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Example:

⮚ Draw the circuit diagram to implement the expression:

x = ( A + B )( B + C )

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Activity 1:

1. Determine the output value of the following logic circuit:

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Activity 2:

1. Draw the circuit diagram to implement the expression:

X = (A.B)+C

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Applications of Logic Gates

⮚ NAND Gates are used in Burglar alarms and buzzers.

⮚ They are basically used in circuits involving computation and

processing.

⮚ They are also used in push button switches. E.g. Door Bell.

⮚ They are used in the functioning of street lights.

⮚ AND Gates are used to enable/inhibit the data transfer function.

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Laws of Boolean Algebra

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Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is the mathematics of digital logic. It is a
system for the manipulation of variables that can have one of
two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0,
or “high” and “low.”

• Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on

Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.

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Rules of Boolean Algebra

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Contd…

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as well

as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities using both
forms. Our first group is rather intuitive:

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Contd…

• Our second group of Boolean identities should be familiar

to you from your study of algebra:

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Contd…

• Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the most

useful.
• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these laws are
also familiar to you.

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De Morgan’s Theorems

 Theorem 1: A.B = A+B

Remember: “Break the bar,
change the operator”
 Theorem 2: A+B = A.B

 De Morgan’s Theorem is very useful in digital circuit design

 It allows ANDs to be exchanged with ORs by using invertors

 De Morgan’s Theorem can be extended to any number of variables

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Contd…

• We can use Boolean identities to simplify the function:

as follows:

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Logic Simplification Using Boolean
Algebra

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Contd.

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Example1
Example1: Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this
expression:
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)

Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the
expression, as follows:
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC

Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term.

AB + AB + AC + B + BC

Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms.

AB + AC + B + BC

Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms.

AB + AC + B

Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms. 43

B + AC
Example 2
Example 2: Simplify the following Boolean expression: [A B (C + B D) + A B] C

Apply the distributive law to the terms within the brackets.

Step 1: (ABC + ABBD + A B)C

Step 2: Apply rule 8 (BB = 0) to the second term within the parentheses.
(ABC + A . 0 . D + A B) C

Step 3: Apply rule 3 (A . 0 . D = 0) to the second term within the parentheses.

(ABC + 0 + A B) C

Step 4: Apply rule 1 (drop the 0) within the parentheses.

(ABC + A B) C

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Contd.
• Step 5: Apply the distributive law.
• ABCC + A B C

• Step 6: Apply rule 7 (CC = C) to the first term.

• ABC + A B C

• Step 7: Factor out BC.

• B C (A + A)

• Step 8: Apply rule 6 (A + A = 1).

• BC . 1

• Step 9: Apply rule 4 (drop the 1).

• BC

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Example 3

Reduce the expression: A + B[AC +(B + D]

A + B[AC +(B + D]
A + B(AC + BD + D)
A + BAC+BBD+B D
A+ABC+BD+BD
A(1+BC) +BD (1+ )
A.1 +BD .1
A+BD

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Activity 1
Apply De Morgan’s theorem to reduce the following
expressions:

1. F = AB + A + AB

2. F = (A+B) (C+D)
3. F= (B+BC) (B+BC)(B+D)
4. Show that ABC+B+BD+ABD+AC = B+C

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 Any
Query ?

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Thanks

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