Sampling

Kousar Perveen
MSN,MBA,BSN
 Objectives of Presentation

By the end of this session, the learners will be

able to:
 Define the term “Sampling”
 Recognize the use of sampling in research
studies
 Discuss Different types of Sampling
Population
A population is the entire aggregation of
cases in which a researcher is interested.

The population is all elements

(individuals, objective, or substance) that
meet certain criteria for inclusions in a
study.
 Target Population
The target population is the aggregate of cases
about which the researcher would like to make
generalizations.
The group from which the study population is
selected
Accessible Population
The accessible population is the
aggregate of cases that conform to the
designated criteria and that are
accessible as a pool of subjects for a
study.
Examples
A target population might consist of all
diabetic people in Pakistan
 The accessible population might
consist of all diabetic people who are
members of a particular health plan.
Researchers usually sample from an
accessible population and hope to
generalize to a target population.
Eligibility Criteria or Inclusion Criteria.
The criteria that specify population
characteristics are referred to as
eligibility criteria or inclusion criteria.
Exclusion Criteria
Sometimes, a population is defined in
terms of characteristics that people
must not possess and this criteria is
known as Exclusion Criteria
For example, the population may be
defined to exclude people who cannot
speak English.
 Sample

A sample is a subset of the population that

is selected for a particular study, and the
members of a sample are the subjects or
study participants.
 Sampling
The process of selecting a number from all
the subjects
OR
Sampling is the process of selecting a
portion of the population to represent the
entire population.
 Sampling Bias
Distortion that arise when a sample is not
representative of the population from
which it was drawn
Sampling bias refers to the systematic
over-representation or under-
representation of some segment of the
population in terms of a characteristic
relevant to the research question.
Sampling & Representativeness

Accessible
Population
Sample

Target Population

Target Population  Accessible Population  Sample

Representative Sample
A representative sample is one whose
key characteristics closely approximate
those of the population.
Sampling Fraction

 If the size of the population is N and the

size of the sample is n, the ratio is n/N
called the sampling fraction.

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Cont…
If N=100 , n=10 then n/N 10/100 =1/10 the
ratio.
It means that on the average, units of the
population will be represented by one unit in
the sample.
Cont…
If the sampling fraction n/N is multiplied
with 100, we get the sampling fraction in
percentage form.
Thus n/N X 100 (10/100X100=10%,) .
It means 10% of the population is included
in the sample.
 Why do we use samples ?

Get information from large populations

At minimal cost
At maximum speed
At increased accuracy
Using enhanced tools
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling involves
random selection in choosing the
elements. The main feature of a
probability sample is that researchers
can specify the probability that each
element of the population will be
included in the sample.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

Probability sampling includes:

Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling,
Stratified Random Sampling,
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling.
Multiphase sampling
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Any sampling method where some elements of population have no
chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection
can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements
based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which
forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not allows the
estimation of sampling errors..

 Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview

the first person to answer the door. In any household with more
than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some
people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed
person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to
answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when
the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these
probabilities.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….
• Nonprobability Sampling includes:
• Accidental Sampling,
• Quota Sampling and
• Purposive Sampling.
In addition, non-response effects may turn any
probability design into a non-probability design if the
characteristics of non-response are not well
understood, since non-response effectively modifies
each element's probability of being sampled.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Probability sampling techniques are:

Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling,
Stratified Random Sampling,
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
It is a probability sample in which the
researchers establish a sampling
frame, (the technical name for the list
of the elements) from which the sample
is chosen.
A table of random number or lottery
system is used to determine which units
are to be selected.
 Simple Random Sampling
Procedure
Use a table of random numbers, a computer
random number generator, or a mechanical
device to select the sample. (Sampling
Frame)
Once a sampling frame has been developed,
elements are numbered consecutively.
A table of random numbers would then be
used to draw a sample of the desired size.
 Simple Random sampling

Advantages
– Simple
– Sampling error easily measured
 Simple Random sampling
Disadvantages
– Need complete list of units, which is
time consuming especially in Case of
large population
– Does not always achieve best
Representativeness
– Simple random sampling is not used
frequently because it is a relatively
inefficient procedure.
 Simple Random Sampling

Example: Estimate the prevalence of tooth

decay among the 1200 children attending a
school
List of children attending the school
Children numerated from 1 to 1200
Sample size = 100 children
Random sampling of 100 numbers between 1
and 1200
How to randomly select?
Simple Random Sampling
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target
population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered
list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then
onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
It is important that the starting point is not automatically
the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from
within the first to the kth element in the list.
A simple example would be to select every 10th name from
the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also
referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
 ADVANTAGES:
 Sample easy to select
 Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
 Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides
with that of selection.
 Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
Stratified Random Sample

-A stratified random sample is one

obtained by separating the population
elements into non-overlapping groups,
called strata, and then selecting a
simple random sample from each
stratum.
Stratified Random Sample
In a stratified sample the sampling
frame is divided into non-overlapping
groups or strata, e.g. geographical
areas, age-groups, genders. A sample
is taken from each stratum, and when
this sample is a simple random sample
it is referred to as stratified random
sampling.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each stratum

Stratified Random Sample
Divide the population into non-

overlapping groups (i.e., strata) N1,

N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 + N3 +
... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random
sample of f = n/N in each strata.
Stratified Random Sample
 Advantages
 More precise if variable associated
with strata
 All subgroups represented, allowing
separate conclusions about each of
them
 It ensures better coverage of the
population than simple random
sampling.

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Stratified Random Sample
 Disadvantages
 Sampling error difficult to measure
 Difficulty in identifying appropriate
strata.
 More complex to organize and
analyze results.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas
is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity.
Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
A sample of such clusters is then selected.
All units from the selected clusters are studied.
CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected
clusters are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within
selected clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in
the sample.
 Cluster Sampling
It is a probability sample in which each sample unit is
a collection, or cluster, of elements

The first task in cluster sampling is to specify

appropriate clusters
 Elements within a cluster are often physically close
together and hence tend to have similar characteristics.

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Cluster Sampling
If, we follow these steps:
Divide population into clusters (usually along
geographic boundaries)
Randomly sample clusters
Measure all units within sampled clusters
 Example: Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
Cluster sampling

Advantages
Simple as complete list of sampling units within
population not required
Less travel/resources required

Disadvantages
Sampling error difficult to measure
 Multi-Stage Sampling
The four methods we've covered so far -- simple,
stratified, systematic and cluster -- are the simplest
random sampling strategies.
The most important principle here is that we can
combine the simple methods described earlier in a
variety of useful ways that help us address our
sampling needs in the most efficient and effective
manner possible. When we combine sampling
methods, we call this multi-stage sampling.
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other.

 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

 Then third stage units will be houses.

 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..
 This technique, is essentially the process of taking random samples
of preceding random samples.
 Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves more
of the problems inherent to random sampling.
 An effective strategy because it banks on multiple randomizations.
As such, extremely useful.
 Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of all
members of the population not exists and is inappropriate.
 Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected
clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large, and perhaps
unnecessary, costs associated with traditional cluster sampling.
Non Probability sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive sampling
Network Sampling
Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling involve using
the most conveniently available people
as study participants.
As the name implies, the sample is
selected because they are convenient.
Stopping people at a street corner to
conduct an interview is sampling by
convenience.
 Convenience sampling
It is used in exploratory research where the
researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive
approximation of the truth.
This non-probability method is often used
during preliminary research efforts to get a gross
estimate of the results, without incurring the cost
or time required to select a random sample.
 Convenience sampling
Advantages:
It is quicker to conduct and easy to use
It is Cost effective
In pilot studies, convenience sample is
usually used because it allows the
researcher to obtain basic data and trends
regarding his study without the
complications of using a randomized
sample.
 Convenience sampling
Limitations:
The problem of Convenience sampling
is that the available subjects might be
atypical of the population of interest with
regard to critical variables
Convenience samples do not necessarily
comprise individuals known to the
researchers.
Quota Sampling
A quota sample is one in which the
researcher identifies population strata
and determines how many participants
are needed from each stratum.
Quota Sampling
It uses a convenience sampling
technique with added feature - a
strategy to ensure the inclusion of
subjects types who are likely to be
underrepresented in the convenience
sample e.g. ethnicity , Hindu religion in
Pakistan
 Quota Sampling
Advantages:
Quota sampling is particularly useful
when you are unable to obtain a
probability sample, but you are still
trying to create a representative sample.
Quota sampling is much quicker and
easier to carry out because it does not
require a sampling frame and the strict
use of random sampling techniques
Quota Sampling
Disadvantages:
The sample has not been chosen using
random selection, which makes it
impossible to determine the possible
sampling error.
Has limitation of external validity or
Generalizability
 Purposive /Judgment Sampling

It is a common non-probability method in

which the researcher selects the sample
based on judgment.
This is usually an extension of
convenience sampling.
 Purposive /Judgment Sampling
For example, a researcher may decide to
draw the entire sample from one
"representative" city, even though the
population includes all cities. When using
this method, the researcher must be
confident that the chosen sample is truly
representative of the entire population.
Purposive /Judgment Sampling
Advantages:
It is less time consuming
Cost effective
Results from purposive sampling are
expected to be more accurate as
compare to other non probability
sampling
Purposive /Judgment Sampling
Disadvantages:
Lacks generalizations
 Network / Snowball Sampling
It is a special non-probability method used
when the desired sample characteristic is
rare.
 It may be extremely difficult or cost
prohibitive to locate respondents in these
situations.
 Snowball sampling relies on referrals
from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects.
Network / Snowball Sampling
This technique can dramatically lower
Research costs.
 It introduces bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood
that the sample will represent a good
cross section from the population.