CHAPTER -1

Geophysics
Introduction and Overview
Geology

Geophysics
Earth Sciences
Geography

Geodesy

Geology- the scientific study of the origin, history, composition

and structure of the Earth.

Geography- the science of the study of the surface of the Earth

such as topography, climate, ocean, plant and animal life

Geodesy- the study of the shape, size, inflexion point and

curvature of the Earth
1
Geophysics- the application of the principles of physics to the study
of the Earth or uses the principles of physics to explore the earth.

- a study with the limits from the end of the universe to

the center of the Earth

Exploration (Applied) Geophysics

Solid Earth Geophysics

Geophysics Oceanography

Meteorology

Hydrology

Geocosmophysics
- ionospheric study and research 2
 Seismology

Volcanology

Geomagnetism

Geoelectricity

Solid Earth Geophysics

Tectnophysics

Gravimetry

Geothermy

Geochronology- the study of age of

the Earth and its different eras

Geocosmogony- study of meteors 3

Solid Earth Geophysics/pure/Global Geophysics
-is study of whole aspects of the earth (crust , mantle and core)
- large scale and very broad
Exploration Geophysics
- deals with small scale and more focus on shallow investigation with in
the top part of crust.
- deals with the methods used to search for hidden treasures from
within the Earth that are economically important to mankind.
The treasures may be
- hydrocarbon deposits (oil and natural gas)

- mineral deposits- metallic and non metallic minerals

(ore deposits, Fe, Cu, U, etc)

- groundwater
- geothermal resources
- environmental problems- waste disposal site characterization,
mapping of weak zones and subsurface discontinuities,
movement of pollutants,
- location of archaeological remains and buried structures,
location of cavities for waste disposal and energy storage,
buried pipes, cables, etc.

- determination of depth to competent zones and to basement,

6
presence of weak zones, etc (esp. for construction work)
 • Methods to achieve these is by carrying out measurements of the
physical field

a) on the surface of the Earth- ground and ship borne surveys

b) above the surface- airborne geophysical surveys, and

c) inside the Earth’s surface- borehole geophysics

• The basis for the measurements are changes/contrasts/ anomalies

in the physical field such as: density, magnetic susceptibility,
conductivity, resistivity, elastic, thermal, radioactive and
geochemical properties.

• Accordingly, there are different geophysical techniques/methods

to be employed and as such each relevant physical property
gives rise to a particular geophysical method

7
Major methods
Gravity Methods
Magnetic Methods
Electrical Methods
Electromagnetic Methods
Seismic Methods
Magnetotelluric Methods
Well Logging Methods

Minor Methods
Radioactive Methods
Geochemical Methods
Geothermal (Heat Flow) Methods

8
Geophysical Methods
Passive methods
• are those methods that detect variations with in the natural
fields associated with in the earth.
For instance, Gravity , magnetic methods and SP

Active methods
• are those methods that uses artificially generated
signals/fields . Seismic methods, electrical methods, IP and
EM..etc..
 Overview of the Methods
1) The Gravity Methods (G)

- measure variations in density within the Earth’s surface – is the

effect of lateral variation of crust
- absolute value of “g” is measured by using a sensitive
instrument- the GRAVIMETER
- common unit of “g” for geophysical purposes is the “milligal”
1 gal = 1 cm/s2

g
distance

x average crustal density  av  2.3  2.6 g / cm

3
- - - x x x - - -
x - -
x x chromite ore   4.5  4.8 gm / cm3
- - x x -
- 10
 • Therefore, small variations in density of subsurface rocks gives rise
to measurable gravity anomaly on the surface

2) The Magnetic Methods (M)

- the method searches for changes in magnetic susceptibility

(K=I/H –the degree to which a body gets magnetized) of rocks
in the subsurface

- materials like magnetite, ilmenite, chromite show large K

values and moreover different rock units exhibit different
susceptibilities

- the natural field of the Earth is used as magnetizing force and

records are made by MAGNETOMETERS

- common unit in geophysical surveys is the “gamma”

1   105 Oe  108 G
11
 Magnetic field
strength

distance

x
x host rock
K2 x x K1 not equal to k2
x x magnetite
x x K1 x
3) Electrical Methods (EL)
- the measured parameter is the vertical or lateral variations
in resistivity of subsurface materials
I

V

x
2 x x x A  V 
 x
x 1x Fe, Cu
  
x x L I 
12
4) Electromagnetic Methods (EM)

- measure variations in conductivity between subsurface

formations

Tx Rx

HS
HP
 surround   t arg et
surround

target Induced Current

- conductivity of subsurface materials vary over a wide range

from 10  4 to 10 4 mhos
13
5) Seismic Methods (S)
- measure acoustic impedance (V) of the layers of the
subsurface
- compressional waves are used
- signals are picked up by geophones and recorded by
seismometers
- two methods
- Seismic reflection technique
- Seismic refraction depending on the type of waves
recorded, their depth of investigation, etc

Source Receivers (Geophones)

1 V1
K1
2 V2
K2
3 V3
K3
4 V4

- different reflection coefficients depending on different

14
V values of individual layers
6) Well Logging Methods (WL)
- instruments lowered into a well measure properties of the
formations, either
- directly- through measurement in the borehole,
G V
- almost directly- measurements past the drilling
mud.

- different techniques using almost all the methods

used in surface geophysical work or all
geophysical methods are also applicable in borehole
geophysics- gravity, magnetic, electrical, EM,
seismic, thermal, radiometric, etc
C’

- in the illustration, for example, the measurement

P’
of current and potential enable one to determine
P the resistivity of the layers at the measurement
C depth
15
7) Magnetotelluric (MT) Methods

- utilize current sheets induced by the ionosphere to flow just

beneath the Earth's surface

- the sheets get distorted depending on the presence of changes

in conductivity in the subsurface, and these distortions give
indication about the presence of conductive targets

- frequencies involved are very low (0.0005 – 1 Hz)

+ + + + +
+ +
+ Ionosphere

- - - - - - Ground surface
- - - - -
- -
-

- --
x
x x x
x
x x conductive target
x x 16
8) Radiometric Methods (R)

- measure natural radioactivity of subsurface rocks

- Nuclear decay processes are
spontaneous and random
statistical- when one averages large decay data it is
found that the decay obey certain laws
- Proportional, Geiger Muller and Scintillation counters are used,

- records are counts/time

17
General Factors Governing Application and Choice of
Geophysical methods
i - the technical factor

mode of geology occurrence

type of geological structure

If the exposure is not concealed/hidden –visible with naked eye –use

direct method in the place of indirect methods

ii- Economic factor

minimize the cost survey
Seismic methods is very expensive/costy than other methods
 Geophysical Survey Applications

Summary
Appropriate Survey
Application Method(s)

Exploration for fossil fuels S, G, M, (EM)

(oil, coal, natural gas)

Exploration for metalliferous mineral M, EM, ER, IP, SP

deposits (Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, etc.)

Exploration for bulk mineral deposits S, (ER), G

Exploration for groundwater ER, S, EM

Engineering and construction site ER, S, (G), M

investigations
19
 Appropriate Survey
Application Method(s)

Exploration for geothermal energy (G), Th, S, ER, EM

Exploration for radioactive minerals R, (M)

Archaeological site investigations M, ER, S

Note: i) (…) denote subsidiary methods

ii) Geophysical methods are used in combination

20
 Steps of Geophysical Survey
Any geophysical survey procedure should involve the following
eight phases;

1 .Survey planning
2 .Data acquisition
3 .Data reduction
4. Data processing
5 .Qualitative interpretation
6. Quantitative interpretation
7. Integration with geo-data
8 .Report writing and recommendation for
follow up.
 CHAPTER-2
GRAVITY METHOD

 Gravity is one of fundamental forces of nature that controls all

movement of mass on Earth.

In gravity surveying/prospecting, subsurface geology is investigated

on the basis of variation in the earth’s gravitational field generated by
differences of density in between rocks.

Thus, the gravitational attraction of the earth is vary from point to

point due to non-homogeneous density of the rocks.

This is the bases for gravimetric survey, so it looks for lateral

variations in density (g/cm3) of subsurface.
 Fundamental Principles and Basic Equations

 The basis of the gravity survey method is Newton’s Universal Laws

of Gravitation which states that the mutual attractive force between
two point masses, m1 and m2, is proportional to one over the square of
the distance between them. Mathematically,
, Where F= force of attraction
G= Universal gravitational constant
(6.67*10-11N.m2/kg2)

G m1 Me F=Force of attraction b/n earth and

 For Earth, F Re 2
particle in the surface of the earth
Re= radius of earth
Me =mass of earth
 Mass of the earth is concentrated
at the centre of Earth.
Newton’s Second law of motion
‘’ states that acceleration of a body of mass m is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on the body and inversely proportional to the mass m’’.
F
a , Where a= acceleration
m1 F= Force
m= mass

 If the acceleration (a) acts in a vertical direction then it is gravitational acceleration (g)
i,e
F
g 
m1
 By combining the two equations, we get:

GMe
g 2 This is basic equation behind the
Re gravity exploration/prospecting.
 Gravity Units
- The first measurement of the acceleration due to gravity was made by Galileo in a famous
experiment –dropped objects from the top of the leaning tower of Pisa.
- The c.g.s unit of acceleration due to gravity is the Gal (honour of Galileo).
- 1Gal=1cm/s2
- Sub-units being used in measurement of gravity include the milliGal (mG) and microGal
(µG)
- also measured by gravity units.
- 1g.u=0.1mGal (10g.u=1mGal).
-The gravity field , g of the earth can be measured in 3
different ways
- Pendulum method
- Mass on spring method
- Free –falling body method
The Pendulum method
- the gravitational acceleration is estimated by measuring the
period oscillation of a pendulum.
-The period of oscillation is the time required for the pendulum to
complete one cycle in its motion.
- Because it is the force of gravity that produces the oscillation, the
period of oscillation to differ for differing values of gravity.
- It can be shown that the period of
oscillation of the pendulum, T, is
proportional to one over the square
root of the gravitational acceleration,
g. The constant of proportionality, k,
depends on the physical characteristics
of the pendulum such
as its length and the distribution of
mass about the pendulum's pivot point.
 The Mass on spring method
 The most common type of gravimeter - used in exploration
surveys.
If we hang a mass on a spring, the force of gravity will stretch the
spring by an amount that is proportional to the gravitational force.

 It can be shown that the proportionality between the stretch of the

spring and the gravitational acceleration is the magnitude of the mass
hung on the spring divided by a constant, k, which describes the
stiffness of the spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the spring is, and the
less the spring will stretch for a given value of gravitational
acceleration.
 Instruments of this type are produced by several manufacturers;
LaCoste and Romberg, Texas Instruments (Worden Gravity Meter), and
Scintrex.
 Modern gravimeters are capable of measuring
changes in the Earth's gravitational acceleration
down to 1 part in 100 million.
-This translates to a precision of about 0.01
mgal.

Worden Gravity Meter

 LaCoste and Romberg
Gravity Meter

- A gravimeter is any instrument designed to measure spatial

variations in gravitational acceleration.
 Falling Body Measurements
-The gravitational acceleration can be measured directly by dropping
an object and measuring its time rate of change of speed
(acceleration) as it falls.
- By tradition, this is the method we have commonly ascribed to
Galileo Galilei
- In this experiment, Galileo is supposed to have dropped objects of
varying mass from the leaning tower of Pisa and found that the
gravitational acceleration of an object undergoes is independent of its
mass. He is also said to have estimated the value of the gravitational
acceleration in this experiment.
- It is easy to show that the distance a body falls is proportional to the
time it has fallen squared. The proportionality constant is the
gravitational acceleration, g. Therefore, by measuring distances and
times as a body falls, it is possible to estimate the gravitational
acceleration.
- To measure changes in the gravitational acceleration down to 1 part
in 40 million
-Micro-g Solutions is one manufacturer of this type of instrument,
known as an Absolute Gravimeter.
- instrument designed to measure absolute gravity.
- computing the absolute gravity down to 1 microgal (0.001 mgals ).
 Measurement of gravity on land
Absolute Gravimeters: is the exact value for the station
measured on the principle of freely falling body.

Absolute gravity may be measured using (relatively) portable, sensitive (0.01 mGal)
instruments recently developed. A mass is allowed to drop, and it is timed between two points
using laser interferometry. The falling mass is a reflecting corner cube.

Corner cubes have the property that a light beam entering them will be reflected back along the
same path. The corner cube is enclosed in an evacuated lift to eliminate air resistance, and a
seismometer is used to detect accelerations of the base due to seismic noise. Corrections
aremade for this noise. The mass is dropped up to many thousands of times in order to measure
g at a single station.
The outputs of the instrument are fed into a computer which calculates
the RMS solution.
The measurement of 1 station takes ~ 1 day, and needs a concrete base
and mains power, since several hundred watts of power are needed.
These instruments are still under development, and are not yet suitable
for conventional surveys.
Relative gravimeters: which have a nominal precision of 0.01 mGal. It
requires a lot of skill and great care to use them well. The results are
measurements of the differences in g between stations.
Measure on the principle of pendulum and mass spring methods.
There are two basic types of gravimeter:
Stable gravimeters :These work on the principle of a force
balancing the force of gravity on a mass, e.g., the Gulf gravimeter.
The equation governing its behaviour is:
F = k(x − xo ) = mg

where xo is the unweighted length of the spring, x is the weighted

length of the spring and k is the spring constant. These instruments
must have long periods to be sensitive. This is not convenient for
surveys, as it means that it takes a long time to measure each point
The Gulf gravimeter comprises a flat spring wound in a helix, with a
weight suspended from the lower end. An increase in g causes the mass
to lower and rotate. A mirror on the mass thus rotates and it is this
rotation that is measured.
The sensitivity of these gravimeters is ~0.1 mGal. They are now
obsolete, but a lot of data exist that were measured with such
instruments and it is as well to be aware that such data are not as
accurate as data gathered with more modern instruments.

Unstable gravimeters : These are virtually universally used now. They

are cunning mechanical devices where increases in g cause extension of
a spring, but the extension is magnified by mechanical geometry. An
example is the Wordon gravimeter, which has a sensitivity of 0.01mGal,
and is quite commonly used.
The Wordon gravimeter is housed in a thermos flask for temperature
stability,but it also incorporates a mechanical temperature
compensation device. It is evacuated to eliminate errors due to changes
in barometric pressure. It weighs about 3 kg and the mass weighs 5 mg.
Vertical movement of the mass causes rotation of a beam, and
equilibrium is restored by increasing the tension of torsion fibres.
Another example of an unstable gravimeter is the LaCoste-
Romberg
A weight is hung on an almost horizontal beam supported by inclined
spring. The spring is a “zero-length” spring, i.e. it behaves as though its
unweighted length is zero. Deflections of the beam are caused by small
changes in g, which cause movement of a light beam. This is restored to
zero by an adjustment screw. The innovation of incorporating a zero
length spring causes great sensitivity, as follows. Sensitivity is described
by the equation:

where m = mass, a, b, y, s = dimensions of the mechanism (see

figure), k = the spring constant and z = the unweighted length of the
spring. Sensitivity can be increased by:
 • increasingM, a or s, or
• decreasing k, b, z or y

In practice, z is made very small. In addition to making the instrument

very sensitive, it also has the undesirable effect of making the period of
the instrument longer, so there is still a wait for the instrument to settle
when taking readings.

Calibration of gravimeters
Calibration is usually done by the manufacturer. Two methods are used:
1. Take a reading at two stations of known g and determine the difference
in g per scale division, or
2. Use a tilt table
All gravimeters drift because of stretching of the spring etc., especially
the Wordon gravimeter. This must be corrected for in surveys.
It is important to understand the difference between accuracy, precision
and repeatability in surveying of all kinds.
Accuracy is how close the measurement is to the truth. This can only be
assessed by comparing the measurement to a more accurate one.
Precision has two meanings:
a) It may indicate the smallest division on a measurement scale (the
engineer’s definition), or
b) it may indicate the statistical error in a measurement, e.g., the root
mean square (RMS).
Repeatability is the consistency between repeated measurements of the
same thing.

Density of common Rocks

Density is the diagnostic parameters in the gravitational methods of

exploration and the small anomalies, sought in this method, are
generally related to the local variations in it.

The range of variation in density is very small (~ 2 mgals), compared

to such other parameters in geophysics as:
 magnetic susceptibility ~ 105
electrical conductivity ~ 1010
radioactivity ~ 102
acoustic wave velocity ~ 103.

Density of Sedimentary Rocks

Depends, by and large on, :-

porosity and density of pore fluid.
Other factors:- age, depositional history and depth of burial.
In general, the average density of sedimentary rocks is lower than that of Igneous and
Metamorphic rocks.
Among the common sedimentary rocks, the following can be put in order of increment
as: Conglomerate → Sandstone → Limestone → Dolomite. However, they exhibit
considerable overlaps.
 Density of Igneous Rocks
- On average more dense than that of sedimentary rocks.

- Also exhibit considerable overlaps.

- Intrusive rocks are some how denser than volcanic lava.

- Basic rocks have higher densities than that of acidic rocks.

- Unless highly fractured, porosity has minor effect in igneous rocks as compared to
sedimentary rocks.

Density of Metamorphic Rocks

• - Density in metamorphic rocks increases with degree of metamorphism since, the

process tends to close pore spaces and re-crystallize the rock masses in denser form.

• Metamorphosed sediments such as Marble, Slate & Quartzite are denser than the
original, Limestone, shale & Sandstone.

• Likewise, Gneiss Vs Granite and Amphibolites Vs Basalt show similar increment in

density though, not significant.

• Like in Igneous, density in metamorphic rocks increases with decrease in acidity.

 Factors that Affect the Gravitational Acceleration, g

Divided into two factors Temporal variation

Spatial variation
 Temporal variation
These are changes in the observed acceleration that are time
dependent.
Instrument Drift - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by
changes in the response of the gravimeter over time or A gradual and
unintentional change in the reference value with respect to which
measurements are made.
Tidal Affects - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by the
gravitational attraction of the sun and moon.
Spatial Variations :- These are changes in the observed
acceleration that are space dependent. That is, these change the
gravitational acceleration from place to place, just like the geologic
affects, but they are not related to geology.
Latitude Variations- Changes in the observed acceleration
caused by the ellipsoidal shape and the rotation of the earth.
Elevation Variations - Changes in the observed Changes in the
observed acceleration caused by differences in the elevations of the
observation points.
Slab Effects - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by
the extra mass underlying observation points at higher elevations.
Topographic Effects - Changes in the observed acceleration related
to topography near the observation point.
 Gravity and Figure of the Earth

Gravimetry, as a method of prospecting, evolved from the earlier study of the earth’s
gravitational force for determining its shape (Geodesy) since, some 250 years ago.

Among the pioneer workers in this field, the French scientist Pierre Bolger, found by
surveying, that the length of a degree of latitude near the equator to be shorter than at
Paris and consequently realized that g would not be constant over the earth’s surface.

The shape of the earth, based on geodetic measurements and recent satellite tracking,
is practically thought to be spheroidal, bulging at the equator and flattened at the poles
such that:
(Req - Rp) / Req = 1/298.25

This ratio is known as polar flattening.

 ~ 3 g/cc
Theoretically, it is possible to calculate the earth’s figure by
assuming the earth as a spherical mass of fluid, rotating about its
Centripetal
polar axis, and having density increasing with depth, figure 3. The
~ 12 g/cc
Force surface of such theoretical shape is an equipotential of the
gravitational plus the centripetal force fields.

The reference spheroid:- is the surface of the earth defined as a mathematical figure in
terms of the gravity values at all surface points. It is considered as an equipotential surface,
representing mean sea level, that can virtually be obtained by removing the excess
continental mass that rise above and, filling the oceanic depressions which sink below it.
Hence, the orientation of the gravitational force, every where on this surface, is normal; or
in other words, the plumb-line is vertical at all points.

The formulae, adopted by International Association of Geodesy (I.A.G) in 1967, gives the
value of g, at any point on the spheroid surface as:

g = go (1 +  sin2 + sin2 2 ),

go = equatorial gravity = 978.0318 gals

f = Latitude
 = 0.0053024
 = -0.0000058
 Geoids
 Even in its finest form, previous equation (the expression for g on the reference spheroid) is
some how a crude approximation since, it neglects the undulations on continental surfaces and
ocean floors. In fact, the continental land masses have a mean elevation of about 500m while,
the mean depression under the oceans is in the order of 9000m, all measured from the mean
sea level. The true sea level, however, is influenced by these irregularities and accurate
measurements of elevations should therefore take this in to account.

Geodesists define a practical sea level (an equipotential surface) through careful
measurements of g, that takes the above point in to consideration. This surface is known as
geoid and is defined as average sea level over the ocean’s surface and would lies in a canal,
say, cut through the continental land masses

Obviously, the geoid on the reference spheroid do not coincide as the former wraps upward,
under the continents and downward over ocean basins. Nonetheless, this difference seldom
exceeds 50 m. Reference
spheroid continental Land

Geoid
Ocean Basin Fig. 4
 Neither the mathematical surface (the reference spheroid) or the
geodetic surface (geiod) consider lateral variation in density. When
this occur close to the surface, they are the object of gravity
prospecting, in exploration geophysics.

Gravity anomaly =gravity at spheroid-gravity at geoids

g at spheroid is equal to g at geoids=0 (no gravity anomaly, no
gravity prospecting method).
 The gravity survey and Field procedure
 The following factors must be considered in designing a survey:
1. If it is desired to tie the survey to others, the network must include
at least one station where absolute g is known.

2. The station spacing must fit the anomaly scale.

3. The heights of all stations must be known or measured to 10 cm.

4. Latitudes must be known to 50 m.

5. Topography affects the measurements, thus it is best to locate the

stations where there is little topography.

6. Access is important, which often means keeping stations to existing

roads or waterways if there are no roads.
7. In the design of the gravity survey, station spacing and accuracy are
most important. It is important to realise that no amount of computer
processing can compensate for poor experiment design. This wise
adage applies for all geophysics, and not just gravity surveying. Linear
features may be studied using one or more profiles, two-dimensional
features may require several profiles plus some regional points, and for
some special objectives, e.g., determining the total subsurface mass,
widely-spaced points over a large area may be appropriate.

Method
The following field procedure is usually adopted:
1. Measure a base station,
2. measure more stations,
3. remeasure the base station approximately every two hours.

If the survey area is large, time can be saved by establishing a

conveniently sited base station
to reduce driving. This is done as follows:
If the survey area is large, time can be saved by establishing a
conveniently sited base station to reduce driving. This is done as follows:

Measure: base 1 –> new base station –> base 1 –> new base station –>
base 1
This results in three estimates of the difference in gravity between base 1
and the new base station. From this, gravity at the new base station may
be calculated.

The new base station can then be remeasured at two-hourly intervals

instead of base 1. This procedure may also be used to establish an
absolute base station within the survey area if oneis not there to start
with.

During the survey, at each station the following information is recorded

in a survey log book:
The time at which the measurement is taken,
• the reading, and
• the terrain, i.e., the height of the topography around the station
relative to the height of the station.

Transport during a gravity survey may be motor vehicle, helicopter, air,

boat (in marshes), pack animal or walking. In very rugged terrain,
geodetic surveying to obtain the station heights may be a problem.
Field Procedures

For regional mapping:

 Station spacing: 1 – 10 km
 Leveling, - Barometric Altimeter with lopping back to base station.
 ± 5m of leveling accuracy  ± 1.5 m gals.
 Conducted: along roads and tracks
 Base station visit: 1 – several hours
 Follow up and detail:-Local surveying

 Station spacing: depends on targets

 Leveling: optical [theodolite]
 ± 0.1 mgals requires leveling accuracy of ± 3cm
 Base station visit: every an hour
 Conducted: along profile lines or regular grids.

All gravity surveys require repetitive visit to the base station for the purpose of
instrument drift and tidal variations.

Data Reduction
It is necessary to make many corrections to the raw meter readings to
obtain the gravity anomalies that are the target of a survey. This is
because geologically uninteresting effects are significant and must be
removed. For example, gravimeters respond to the changing
gravitational attraction of the sun and moon, and sea and solid Earth
tides. Earth tides can be up to a few cm, and 0.01 mGal, the target
precision, corresponds to 5 cm of height.
 Gravity data are generally affected by several factors and must be corrected for such
variations as instrument drift, latitude, elevation; in order to reduce to the value they would
have on some datum plane (for e.g., geoid) or some other surface every where parallel to it.

The following are essential components of the gravity data reduction:

a) Drift correction:- results from creep in the springs of the instrument despite, temperature
stabilization.

• common drift rates  0.01 – 1 mgal/hr.

• means of correction  hourly visit to the base station.

• sense of correction  positive drift requires negative correction and vice-versa.

Tidal correction:- related to the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun.

• maximum amplitude of variation  ~ 0.3 mgal.

• slow and periodic

• means of correction  normally together with instrument drift.

Latitude correction

The combined effect of the earth`s rotation and its equatorial bulge produces an increase in
the value of g with latitude. g increases from 9.78 m/s 2 at the equator to 9.83 m/s2 at the
poles.

dgL/ds  1/Re (dgL/d)  1/Req (dgL/d)  0.81sin(2) mgal/km, N-S of the base

where,  = geographic latitude,

Re = radius of the earth at latitude ,
and Req = equatorial radius

Since gravity increases with latitude (both N and S), the above correction is always
additive as one goes towards the equator.
 Free-air correction

The gravitational attraction decreases with elevation since, it varies inversely with the
square of the distance from earth’s center. Hence, it is necessary to correct the reading so
that all field readings are reduced to a datum surface.

dg/dh = 0.308 mgal/m

where, h = elevation in m.
The free-air correction is added/subtracted to the field reading depending on weather the
station lies above/below the reference datum. This is the most critical one in gravity data
reduction. ±5 m accuracy in elevation implies an error of ± 1.5 mgal in g.

The free-air correction takes no account of

the material between the station and the
reference plane.
Bouguer correction

The Bouguer correction accounts for the gravitational attraction due to materials between
the station and the datum plane, which has been ignored in the free air.

Δg/Δh = 2πG= 0.04188  mgal/m =0.11mgal/m

where, h = elevation in m.
and  = density in g/cc  2.67 for common crustal
rocks

The Bouguer correction is subtracted/added to the field reading depending on weather the
station lies above/below the base at the reference datum. It is therefore of opposite to that
of free-air.
Station (b)
 an infinite slab of
h
density, 
Base (a)
Reference, Datum
plane.
The two basic assumptions made in formulating the Bouguer slab, (1) of uniform density and
(2) of infinite horizontal extent, are not usually valid for real field situation.
The first case can be taken care of by having a good knowledge of the local geology and , if
possible, by precise measurements of densities of the constituent rock units. The second one
is addressed by the subsequent correction, the Terrain correction.

Terrain correction

Also known as topographic correction and takes care of surface irregularities in the vicinity
of the measurement point. This refers to hills (excess mass), above and, valleys (mass
deficiency), below the point of the hypothetical surface used for the Bouguer slab.

Plumb

Hill
[excess
mass ]
Valley
[mass deficiency]
Terrain corrections require good quality topographic maps (10m contour interval or better),
extending beyond the survey area. One method of carrying out terrain correction is to divide
up the area around a station into sectors bounded by concentric circles of radii drawn at
suitable angular intervals.
For such arrangement the correction term is given as:



gT  T  G r2  r1  r1  z 2
2
  r  z 
1
2
2
2
1
2 
 where,
T = Terrain factor
r = density
f= angular interval for sectors, [rad]
r1, r2 = inner & outer radii of the sectors
Z = mean elevation
G = 6.67 × 103 for Δg in mGal and
81
 in g/cm3 (t/m3)
0

79
0

800
790
77
0
78
0
77
0

r1 
r2
 Bouguer Anomaly

The Bouguer gravity anomaly is obtained after all the preceding corrections have been
applied to the observed gravity. Terrain correction is not always applied. When applied, it
is termed as complete Bouguer anomaly. If not it is known as simple Bouguer anomaly.

g B  g obser  g d  dg L  dg FA  dg B  dgT
Putting the numerical values
g Cor  g obs  d .c  L.c  0.308h  (T .c  0.04191 h)  in mGals

Gravity Data presentations

Gravity Maps and Profiles
Gravity Maps and Profiles consist of a regional component , representing large scale
variations arise from deep seated, regional structures and, short wave length or small scale
variations due to local, near surface features. From exploration point of view, we are often
interested in these local features. However, the large scale structures predominate on the
gravity map to such an extent that it may be very difficult to recognize smaller or shallower
features. One have to, then, remove the regional component from the reduced gravity data
in order to obtain the Residual field which is of primary interest in gravity prospecting.
 Gravity Map
260000 260200 260400 260600 260800 261000 261200
In short: it is presented
• Gravity /Bouger Anomaly map
1248400 1248400

1248200 1248200
• Gravity profiles
1248000 1248000
80
• Contour maps
1247800 1247800 75

B 65 Gravity profile
1247600 1247600

55
g [mGals]
1247400 1247400
45

1247200 1247200
35

1247000 1247000 25

15
1246800 1246800

5
1246600 1246600 grav
[m G als]

1246400 1246400
A
260000 260200 260400 260600 260800 261000 261200

X
 Interpretations, Modeling and Examples
Interpretation relies heavily on the formulae for simple shapes. Methods
for interpretation may be divided into two approaches:

1. Direct (forward) methods. Most interpretation is of this kind. It

involves erecting a model based on geological knowledge, e.g.,
drilling, or parametric results, calculating the predicted gravity field,
and comparing it to the data. The body may then be changed until a
perfect fit to the data is obtained.
- from model to geology (M to G).

2. Indirect methods. These involve using the data to draw conclusions

about the causative body, e.g., the excess mass, the maximum depth to
the top. Some parameters may be calculated, but the full inverse problem
i.e., calculating the body from the anomaly, is inherently non-unique
- from geology to model ( G to M).
 The ambiguity problem
This is the intrinsic problem that gravity interpretation not unique.
Although for any given body, a unique gravity field is predicted, a
single gravity anomaly may be explained by an infinite number of
different bodies, e.g., spheres and point masses. Because of this
dilemma, it is most important use constraints from surface outcrop,
boreholes, mines and other geophysical methods. The value of gravity
data is dependent on how much other information is available.
Regional –Residual separation
Regional Field/Anomaly Local Field/Anomaly
 originated from deep  originated from shallow source
seated/ from deep depth  short wave length
 Long wave length  Low Amplitude
 High Amplitude  high frequency
 Low frequency  high velocity
 Low velocity  low period, T
 identified by Low pass,  identified by high pass, Upward
Down ward continuation continuation
 Also , for structural enhancement we use:
First derivative
Second derivative
Directional filtering

Filtering Methods
-is separated by filtering methods
- Filtering – is the separation of regional-residual fields.
-also use to enhance real signal and attenuate unwanted data (noise) signal.
methods: Low pass
high pass
Upward continuation
Down ward continuation Regional –Residual separation
First derivative
Second derivative
Directional derivative Enhancement of structure
Depth of the basement rock

Low Pass
 used to filter regional field from local field
 used to enhance regional and suppress local
 High pass
 used to filter local from regional field
 used to enhance local and attenuate regional field

Down ward continuation

• observe the gravity field at shallow surface
• the same with low pass

Up ward continuation
o observe the gravity field at deep depth.
o the same with high pass

Note : First derivative, second derivative and directional filtering is

used to enhance the direction of the structure at shallow depth.
Upward and Downward Continuation

There is a close analogy between the

regional-residual separation operation and a
filtering process. The regional effects
correspond to low frequencies, while the
residuals correspond to high frequencies.

The upward and downward continuation

procedures corresponds to high-pass and
low pass filtering processes, respectively.

h4

h3

h2

h1
10 km

25 km
 There are also several methods to removal of the so-called regional from gravity maps and
profiles (from the reduced gravity data). One approach is graphical, another is analytical.

Graphical and smoothing techniques : applies when the residuals are evident i.e., when
their trend is distinctly different from that of the regional

4 4.0
g [mGals]

0.1
3
0.2

2 3.0 0.3

2.0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 X

(i) (ii)
 Empirical gridding method: in this method, the regional is considered to be the average
value of gravity in the vicinity of the station, obtained by averaging the observed values on the
circumference of a circle centered at the station.
1 2
g (r ) 
2 0
g ( r ,  ) d

Replacing the integral by a sum of n discrete values,

g (r )  {g (r , 1 )  g (r ,  2 )  ...  g (r ,  n )} / n.

The g(r,θ) terms are obtained from the gravity contour map by interpolation. Thus the residual
can be obtained as:
g res  g s  g (r ).
2.1

2.2 g (r,θ1)
g (r,θ5)
2.3
gs
2.2
g (r,θ2)

2.1
Quantitative Interpretation (Example)
Gravity effect of simple geometric objects; Example of a buried Sphere

2 3
1
G [mGals]

Distance
Station [m]
s h

Base (a)
`
 Numerical Example At p, g along r is:
GM
g [mGals]

gr 
r2
g-max The vertical component:
1.0
GMZ
0.8
g  g r cos  
r3
2X1/2
since, cos θ = Z/r.
0.6 g-max1/2
The mass of the sphere of
0.4
radius, a and density
contrast,  is:
0.2
4 
M  a 3
P 3
X
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 4Ga 3 Z
θ g 
Z r
g 3 
X 2  Z2 
3
2

GMZ
1 g
a
or
X 2
Z 2

3
2

2
2 - 1 =  - density Z – depth to the center of the sphere
contrast X – horizontal distance
g [mGals]
Half-width method
Depth of the Causative body:

1.0
g-max Referring to the graph, g-max is at X=0
GM
0.8 g max  2
Z
0.6 g-max1/2 At half-max:
2X1/2 GMZ GM
0.4 3

 2  2 2Z 2
X1 Z2
0.2  
 2 
P
X
Canceling common terms from both sides:
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3
θ
g  2 2
2

Z r
2Z   X 1  Z 
3

 2 
1 Solving for X1/2 
a
2
2
or Z  1.3 X 1
2 - 1 =  - density
contrast
X1  Z 2 3
1 2
2

Mass Estimation

2
Knowing the depth, one can estimate the Mass as: g max X 1
GM g max Z 2 M in tons and
g max   M  2 2

Z2 G  2 3  1G X1/2 in meters

 
Major Applications of Gravity Survey
In regional scales [ > 1: 50,000], used for mapping:
 Large tectonic provinces.
 Structural features such as faults, contacts,
etc... .
 Major lithologic units.
 Sedimentary basins
 Intrusions.

Station spacing: 1 – 10 km Follow up and detail [ 1: 10,000 – 1: 1000]

In mineral exploration, it used for:

 Mapping greenstone belts.

 delineating contacts .
 Direct detection of massive ores.

Station spacing: 10 – few 100 m

In Ground water and Engineering projects, applied to detect:

 Buried channels*.
 Construction materials.

Station spacing: 1- few 10 of meters

 CHAPTER-3
Magnetic Methods
Magnetic Survey - Measurements of the magnetic field or its
components at a series of different locations over an area of interest,
usually with the objective of locating concentrations of magnetic
materials or of determining depth to basement. Magnetic surveying is the
oldest method of geophysical prospecting.
Theoretical principles and basic equation
Charles Augustin de Coulomb, in 1785, showed that the force of
attraction or repulsion between electrically charged bodies and between
magnetic poles also obey an inverse square.
The mathematical expression for the magnetic force experienced
between two magnetic monopoles is given by
where µ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic
permeability, p1 and p2 are the strengths of the two magnetic
monopoles,
Units Associated with Magnetic Poles
The units associated with magnetic poles and the magnetic field are a bit
more obscure than those associated with the gravitational field. From
Coulomb's expression, we know that force must be given in Newtons, N,
where a Newton is a kg - m / s*s. We also know that distance has the
units of meters, m. Permeability is defined to be a unitless constant.

The magnetic field strength, H, is defined as the force per unit pole
strength exerted by a magnetic monopole, p1.

H is nothing more than Coulomb's expression divided by p2. The

magnetic field strength H is the magnetic analogy to the gravitational
acceleration, g.
 Given the units associated with force, N, and
magnetic monopoles, Amp -m, the units
associated with magnetic field strength are
Newton's per Ampere-meter, N / (Amp - m). A
Newton/ (Amp - m) is referred to as a tesla (T),
named after the renowned inventor Nikola Tesla,
When describing the magnetic field strength of the earth, it is more
common to use units of nanoteslas (nT). A nanotesla is also commonly
referred to as a gamma.
Types of magnetism
There are two types of magnetism

A. Magnetic Induction
When a magnetic material, say iron, is placed within a magnetic field, H,
the magnetic material will produce its own magnetization. This
phenomena is called induced magnetization.
In practice, the induced magnetic field (that is, the one produced by the
magnetic material) will look like it is being created by a series of
magnetic dipoles located within the magnetic material and oriented
parallel to the direction of the inducing field, H.

The strength of the magnetic field induced by the magnetic material due
to the inducing field is called the intensity of magnetization, I.
 Magnetic Susceptibility

The intensity of magnetization, I, is related to the strength of the

inducing magnetic field, H, through a constant of proportionality, k,
known as the magnetic susceptibility.

The magnetic susceptibility is a unitless constant that is determined by

the physical properties of the magnetic material.
It can take on either positive or negative values. Positive values imply
that the induced magnetic field , I, is in the same direction as the
inducing field, H. Negative values imply that the induced magnetic
field is in the opposite direction as the inducing field.
In magnetic prospecting, the susceptibility is the fundamental material
property whose spatial distribution we are attempting to determine. In
this sense, magnetic susceptibility is analogous to density in gravity
 Mechanisms for Induced Magnetization
There are three types of magnetic materials: paramagnetic,
diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetism: This form of magnetism is a fundamental property of all
materials and is caused by the alignment of magnetic moments
associated with orbital electrons in the presence of an external magnetic
field. For those elements with no unpaired electrons in their outer
electron shells. The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are
relatively small and negative. Quartz and salt.
Paramagnetism - This is a form of magnetism associated with elements
that have an odd number of electrons in their outer electron shells.
Paramagnetism is associated with the alignment of electron spin
directions in the presence of an external magnetic field. It can only be
observed at relatively low temperatures.
The temperature above which paramagnetism is no longer observed is
called the Curie Temperature. The susceptibilities of paramagnetic
substances are small and positive
Ferromagnetism - This is a special case of paramagnetism in which
there is an almost perfect alignment of electron spin directions within
large portions of the material referred to as domains. Like
paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures below
the Curie temperature. (the temp.at which magnetic minerals loose
their own magnetic properties i, e at 550 degree centigrade).
The Curie temperature
This is the temperature of demagnetisation. Some examples of Curie
temperatures are:
• Fe 750°C
• Ni 360°C
• magnetite 578°C
The majority of anomalies in the crust result from magnetite, and so
knowledge of the Curie temperature and the geothermal gradient can
give information on the depth range of causative bodies.
 B. Remanent Magnetization
If the magnetic material has relatively large susceptibilities, or if the
inducing field is strong, the magnetic material will retain a portion of its
induced magnetization even after the induced field disappears. This
remaining magnetization is called Remanent Magnetization or This is
due to the previous history of the rock. There are various types:

 Chemical remnant magnetization (CRM)

This is acquired as a result of chemical grain accretion or alteration, and
affects sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Detrital remnant magnetisation (DRM)
This is acquired as particles settle in the presence of Earth’s field. The
particles tend to orient themselves as they settle.
Isothermal remnant magnetism (IRM)
This is the residual magnetic field left when an external field is applied
and removed, e.g.,lightning.
 Thermoremnant magnetisation (TRM)
This is acquired when rock cools through the Curie temperature, and
characterises most igneous rocks. It is the most important kind of
magnetisation for palaeomagnetic dating.
Viscous remnant magnetism (VRM)
Rocks acquire this after long exposure to an external magnetic field,
and it may be important in fine-grained rocks.

Induced and remnant magnetism

The direction and strength of the present Earth’s field is known.

However, we may know nothing about the remnant magnetisation of a
rock.
For this reason, and because in strongly magnetised rocks the induced
field dominates, it is often assumed that all the magnetisation is induced.

The true magnetisation is the vector sum of the induced and remnant
components, however. The remnant magnetisation be measured using an
Astatic or Spinner magnetometer, which measure the magnetism of
samples in the absence of the Earth’s field.

Susceptibilities of Rocks and Minerals

Unlike density, notice the large range of susceptibilities not only

between varying rocks and minerals but also within rocks of the same
type.
 Magnetic Field Nomenclature
At any point on the Earth's surface, the magnetic field, F, has some
strength and points in some direction. The following terms are used to
describe the direction of the magnetic field.
 Declination
Inclination
 Magnetic Equator
Magnetic poles

Declination - The angle between north and the horizontal projection

of F. This value is measured positive through east and varies from 0 to
360 degrees.

Inclination - The angle between the surface of the earth and F.

Positive inclinations indicate F is pointed downward, negative
inclinations indicate F is pointed upward. Inclination varies from -90 to
90 degrees.
Magnetic Equator - The location around the surface of the Earth
where the Earth's magnetic field has an inclination of zero (the magnetic
field vector F is horizontal). This location does not correspond to the
Earth's rotational equator.
Magnetic Poles - The locations on the surface of the Earth where the
Earth's magnetic field has an inclination of either plus or minus 90
degrees (the magnetic field vector F is vertical). These locations do not
correspond to the Earth's north and south poles.
F includes contributions from the Earth's main magnetic field (the
inducing field), induced magnetization from crustal sources, and any
contributions from sources external to the Earth.
The Earth's Magnetic Field
Ninety percent of the Earth's magnetic field looks like a magnetic field
that would be generated from a dipolar magnetic source located at the
center of the Earth and aligned with the Earth's rotational axis

The remaining 10% of the magnetic field can not be explained in terms
of simple dipolar sources.
As observed on the surface of the earth, the magnetic field can be
broken into three separate components.

Main Field - This is the largest component of the magnetic field and
is believed to be caused by electrical currents in the Earth's fluid outer
core. For exploration work, this field acts as the inducing magnetic
field.
External Magnetic Field - This is a relatively small portion of the
observed magnetic field that is generated from magnetic sources external
to the earth. This field is believed to be produced by interactions of the
Earth's ionosphere with the solar wind. Hence, temporal variations
associated with the external magnetic field are correlated to solar
activity.
Crustal Field(Anomalous Magnetic Field) -This is the
portion of the magnetic field associated with the magnetism of
crustal rocks. This portion of the field contains both
magnetism caused by induction from the Earth's main
magnetic field and from remnant magnetization.
Mathematically it can be expressed by:

BT  Bext  Bint  Bext  B D  Brm

where BT is the total magnetic field, Bext is External magnetic field, BD is
Dipole field, which is mainly generated by the fluid outer core and B rm
is the field of rock magnetism

Temporal Variation of Earth’s magnetic field

It was recognized that the earth's magnetic intensity changes its
direction slowly and irregularly. Later measurements at magnetic
observatories showed many changes in the magnetic field that have
shorter periods than those originally observed. This temporal variation
may be resolved into secular variation, diurnal variation and
variations due to magnetic storms.
Secular variation: These are long-term (changes in the field that
occur over years) variations in the main magnetic field that are
presumably caused by fluid motion in the Earth's Outer Core. These
variations occur slowly with respect to the time of completion of a
typical exploration magnetic survey; as result .these variations will not
complicate data reduction efforts.
 Diurnal variation: These variations in the magnetic field that
occur over the course of a day and related to variations in the Earth's
external magnetic field. This variation can be 20 to 30 nT per day and
accounted for when conducting exploration magnetic surveys. Diurnal
variations are believed to be caused by electric currents induced in the
Earth from an external source.

Magnetic storms: Magnetic activity, occasionally in the

ionosphere will abruptly increase, the occurrence of such storms
correlates with enhanced sunspot activity. The magnetic field observed
during these times is highly irregular and unpredictable, having
amplitudes 1000nT. Magnetic surveying should be discontinued during
such storms because of the impossibility of correcting the data collected
for the rapid and high–amplitude changes in the magnetic field

Magnetic surveying instruments

The two instruments most commonly used at the present for field-based
measurements of the magnetic field are the flux-gate and proton-
precision magnetometer.
The flux-gate magnetometer
-is capable of measuring the strength of any component of Earth’s
magnetic field by simply re-entering the instrument so that the cores are
parallel to the desired component.
 This instrument has the following disadvantages:
• it is not an absolute instrument and it is liable to drift.
• it is insufficiently accurate for modern work.

The proton-precision magnetometer

 only measures the total size of the Earth’s magnetic field. These types
of measurements called total field measurements.
Advantages offered by proton precession magnetometers include:
• great sensitivity,
• they measure the total field,
• they are absolute instruments,
• they do not require orientation or levelling like the flux-gate
magnetometer,
• there are no moving parts like the flux-gate magnetometer. This
reduces power consumption and breakdowns.
The disadvantages include:
 each measurement takes several seconds. This is a great
disadvantage for aeromagnetic work,
 field gradients that are so large that they are significant within the
bottle will cause inaccurate readings or no sensible reading at all,
 they do not work in the presence of AC power interference, e.g.,
below power lines.

 With the proton magnetometer, surveys are very simple and quick.
 Magnetic field survey procedure
Magnetic data can be collected by two folds.

Rectangular grid pattern: can be taken at the nodes of the

rectangular grid.

Along a traverse: data can be taken at fixed interval.

- A base station should be quick and easy to relocate and re-occupy.

In ground-based survey, establish a local base station in an area away

from suspected magnetic targets or magnetic noise like poles,

Magnetic Data Reduction

All magnetic data sets contain elements of noise and will require some
form of correction to the raw data to remove all contributions to the
observed magnetic field other than those caused by sub-surface
magnetic sources.
Any ferromagnetic substance can produce an induced magnetic field in
the presence of the Earth's main field.
A modern magnetometer is sensitive to such noises ,includes belts,
glasses and ferrous objects such as houses, fences ,railroads rails, cars
and concrete foundation and corrections for such noise is important.

There are several ways of correcting magnetic data noise according to

the various magnetic variations.
For secular variation of magnetic data a model is known as
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) has been prepared
for comparison of individual magnetic responses in different areas of
the globe.

The diurnal variation of Earth's magnetic field is corrected by:

reoccupying the base station near or around the survey.
Diurnal correction applied to the measured data (Bobs).

The dipole field is determined from International Geomagnetic

Reference Field (IGRF) map and subtracted from the measurements
acquired at each station to generate magnetic anomalies as

Where - Magnetic Anomaly

- Drift/Duirnal corrected Value
- Main dipole Field

The other corrections like slab, topographic and terrain correction can’t
be applied because the large variation in susceptibilities associated with
earth materials even when those materials are of the same rock type.
Magnetic susceptibilities vary by orders of magnitude even among
samples of the same rock type.
 Displaying Magnetic Data/Presentations
Magnetic data can be presented as :
 Contour maps
 Profiles
 Anomaly map/Magnetic anomaly map

As profiles
 Interpretation of magnetic data
Magnetic data after processed, can be interpreted by using Inverse and
Forward approaches.
 Forward modelling
The direct comparison of measured anomalies as obtained from a
magnetic survey with the anomaly distribution field obtained by a given
It is an interactive forward modelling program which calculates the
magnetic response from a user defined hypothetical geologic model.
Note: software called GM-SYS.
Any differences between the model response and the observed
magnetic field are reduced by refining the model structure or
properties (e.g. susceptibility) of model components.

The modeled image or profile can be compared with data obtained from
the survey in order to reach, by subsequent approximations in the model
parameters, the ideal model that gives the closest agreement with the
observed ground data.
 Inverse modelling
Inversion means a mathematical technique in which the source model,
which generates a given observed anomaly, is reconstructed directly
from the observed data. Inverse modelling outputs a model of the Earth
only in terms of distribution of some physical properties, directly based
only on observed data.
 Qualitatively Quantatively
 as profiles - Euler deconvolution
 as stacked profiles or Euler depth
 from magnetic anomaly map
 Analytical signal map
 Tilt derivative of analytical signal map

Magnetic Anomaly Map

 It is produced from the corrected magnetic data.
 From the magnetic anomaly map, the subsurface depicts that very
high and /or low magnetic response corresponding to the presence of
high and /or low magnetic materials and/or their relative depth at the
different locations over the area.
 Used to observe structures that are perpendicular to magnetic field
(i,e structures oriented to E to W).
 Can’t depict parallel structures i,e N to S magnetic field.
 Analytical Signal Map
 From the magnetic anomaly map, the analytical signal map is
developed.
This method of representing magnetic data is very useful at low
magnetic latitudes.
 Used to show the structures hidden in magnetic anomaly map.
 Give clues for E –W and N-S oriented structures at the same time.
 The analytic signal map is well resolved for near surface (shallow)
anomaly sources but may not be as such well resolved for deep sources
and is good at locating the edges of shallow bodies.
 The amplitude of the simple analytical signal peaks (maxima) over
magnetic contacts does not depend on the directions (inclinations) of
magnetization
 Tilt Derivative of the Analytical Signal Map

 The tilt angle has the attractive property of being positive over
sources, cross through zero at or near the edge of a vertical sided
sources and is negative outside the source region.

 The tilt derivative of the reduced-to-pole fields have anomaly zero

crossings located close to the edges of structures.

 The tilt angle overcomes the problem of the shallow and deep
sources by dealing with the ratio of the vertical derivative to the
horizontal derivative.
 Euler Depth /Deconvolution

 The Euler deconvolution method uses the first order derivative to

determine the magnetic sources and estimate their depths, but it requires
an assumption about the nature of the source or structural index
Euler depth or Euler deconvolution map
Application of the magnetic methods
Magnetic surveying is a rapid and cost-effective technique

Mineral exploration-sulphide ore body

Archaeological investigation, Locating buried pipes
Engineering application-hazardous zone like structures
 Environmental investigation (land fill site investigation)
, locating leachates